The Book of the Fair - Chapter 26



Page 921

Chapter the Twenty-Sixth:
World's Congress Auxiliary

Of the origin and purposes of the Congress Auxiliary, its scope and 
character, mention has been made in an early chapter of this work, in 
connection with Exposition management. As stated in substance by the 
officials themselves, its general objects may thus be briefly 
recapitulated. As an adjunct or supplement to the Fair, it was intended to 
provide for a fitting representation of the intellectual and moral 
progress and condition of the civilized world, with the assistance of the 
foremost men and women in each department. Here was a convenient time and 
place in which the members of kindred organizations might assemble for the 
consideration of living questions relating to every phase of civilized 
life; might prepared and in a measure secure the execution of more 
comprehensive plans than had ever before been formulated "to promote the 
progress, prosperity, unity, peace, and happiness of the world." 

It was in truth an ambitious programme; but one which, as I have said, 
received the endorsement and cooperation of acknowledged leaders in every 
sphere of human thought and achievement. It was, moreover, a novel feature 
in the annals of international expositions; nor was it merely an appendage 
but an integral part of the Fair, one sanctioned by congress and 
authorized by the directory. Here expression was given to the subjective, 
just as in the material display were expressed the objective conditions 
and relations of modern civilization. Of those who attended or took part 
in the meetings a large proportion were foreigners, and to many the 
congresses were the most interesting portion of the Exposition. Coming as 
they did from cities better governed, more favored as to social 
environment, and with more of the comforts and amenities of life, they had 
now an opportunity such as never before existed for investigating, 
discussing, and comparing with their own the political, industrial, and 
other aspects of a nation whose existence is counted by decades instead of 
by centuries, and yet has solved not a few of the problems with which the 
old world is struggling. 

The congresses were held in the Art Institute recently erected on the lake 
front, in the business quarter of Chicago, and containing two large 
auditoria, named Columbus and Washington halls, each with a seating 
capacity of 3,000 persons, these with smaller chambers permitting a series 
of meetings to be held simultaneously. Funds for the occasion were in 
liberal supply, the Exposition directory contributing $200,000, or one 
fourth of the total cost of the building, on condition that it be placed 
at the disposal of the congresses during the term of the Fair. The total 
attendance at all the sessions of the various departments was little short 
of 1,000,000, of whom at least two thirds were women, the audiences being 
mainly composed of the more intelligent classes, whether Chicagonese or 
pilgrims of the Fair. 

Page 922

As first it was organized, woman was entirely unrepresented in the 
Congress Auxiliary; and as in other departments, the prominent part that 
was later accorded to women was largely due to the efforts of Mrs. Potter 
Palmer, as president of the Board of Lady Managers. Addressing a letter to 
the authorities, she asked that women and their interests be represented 
at its gatherings. The request was granted without demur, and it was 
further stated that no committee of women had been appointed merely 
because such a demand had been anticipated, the managers preferring that 
the suggestion should reach them from those who had women's interests in 
charge. Thereupon a woman's branch was established, with Mrs. Palmer as 
president, and as vice-president Mrs. Charles Henrotin, than whom none are 
better versed or more deeply interested in social and humanitarian 
questions. The result was not only a congress of representative women, 
attended by women from every quarter of the world; but that in the 
nineteen congresses held between May and October for the discussion of 
subjects ranging from political science to household economics, women took 
part in all but three, these being electricity, engineering, and real 
estate. 

First on the list were the congresses of representative women, their 
formal opening being on Monday, the 15th of May, and their sessions 
lasting the entire week. As stated by Mrs. Henrotin, their purposes 
"included a presentation of the different fields of work in which women 
were extensively engaged, either as teachers, workers in the trades, in 
the liberal professions, or in philanthropic work." Though up to the 
middle of May the average attendance at the Fair was less than 30,000 a 
day, against 270,000 for its closing month, the women's congresses were 
far more successful than many that were held much later in the season. 
This was due not only to the fusion of the more important women's 
associations throughout the United States, but to the participation of 
foreign societies, whose representatives were here in force. On the first 
day the exercises began with an address from the president, Charles C. 
Bonney, who reviewed the origin and development of the Congress Auxiliary, 
presenting briefly an outline of its general plan, and acknowledging his 
indebtedness to eminent men and women for their suggestions, 
encouragement, and cooperation. As president of the woman's branch, Mrs. 
Palmer delivered an address of welcome, followed by Mrs. Henrotin and Mrs. 
May Wright Sewall, who spoke of the part that women would play in the 
congresses. Then came the introduction of foreign representatives, with 
responses on behalf of foreign countries, this being continued at the 
evening session. Here was manifested the world-wide participation in the 
congresses; for among those introduced were women from nearly all European 
countries; from Canada, Iceland, Australia, and South America; other 
sessions being attended also by women from India, China, and Japan, from 
Mexico and Central America, though from the United States came more 
delegates than from all other countries combined. 

On the following day an address was delivered in Washington hall by 
Elizabeth Cady Stanton on the civil and social evolution of woman, 
followed by one from Marie Stromberg on the evolution of Russian woman. At 
the evening session Julia Ward Howe spoke of the moral initiative as 
related to woman, and Kate Tupper Galpin of California, on the ethical 
influence of woman in education. In Columbus hall the subjects treated 
were woman in relation to government and civil law, to science and 
industrial economics, one of the best papers being read by Lady Aberdeen, 
who selected as her theme woman as an actual force in politics. Thus the 
sessions were continued throughout the week, the topics covering the range 
already indicated. Senorita d'Alcala lectured on woman in Spain for the 
last four centuries; Madame Quesada and Baroness Wilson on woman's 
position in the South American states; Madame Janauschek described woman's 
place in the legitimate drama; Georgia Cayvan, the stage and its women; 
Modjeska, the endowed theatre, 

Page 923

and Clara Morris, woman in the emotional drama. An interesting paper on a 
century of progress for women in Canada was read by a representative of 
the dominion. Others were on woman as a religious teacher, and educator, a 
writer, an artist, and in relation to trades and professions. These, 
however, form but a portion of the questions considered, the reading of 
some of the papers being followed by brief discussions on their subject 
matter. 

Meanwhile other sessions and informal conference were held in the minor 
halls, at which was treated even a wider range of subjects, one of which 
related to woman's dress and especially to dress reform. Lucy Stone 
advocated the Bloomer costume which years ago, in conjunction with Susan 
b. Anthony, she tried in vain to introduce, while Frances M. Steele would 
have her sex return to the clinging, transparent drapery of the Greeks. At 
these auxiliary meetings were represented many women's associations, 
clubs, and leagues, among the speakers being Julia Ward Howe, Susan B. 
Anthony, Florence Fenwick Miller, Mary Livermore, Laura Ormiston-Chant, 
Clara Barton, Mary Frost Ormsby, Jane Cobden Unwin, and other too numerous 
here to be mentioned. On the Sabbath services were conducted entirely by 
women, a feature being the Marche Triomphale, rendered by the largest harp 
orchestra ever assembled in the United States. 

Next to the congresses of representative women came those of 
representative journalists belonging to all departments of the press, the 
daily and weekly journals, religious, professional, trade, and scientific 
journals, with magazines and periodicals. As stated by the management, it 
was intended to provide for a proper presentation of the work and 
influence of the public press; to bring the most active and potent 
agencies of public opinion into more harmonious and useful relations, and 
as far as practicable to enable those who attended to see and hear the 
masters of journalism. The themes to be discussed were not chosen for 
special writers, but the writers for the themes, all the topics being 
carefully considered and the best men selected to give them fitting 
expression. Among them were the origin and development of the press; its 
duties, rights, and privileges; its legal and moral responsibilities; 
together with the art of news gathering, of reporting public proceedings, 
and of editorial comment. 

On the 22d of May the press congresses were formally opened with an 
afternoon reception, followed in the evening by addresses of welcome and 
other speech-making. On the following day a session was held in Columbus 
hall, William P. Nixon as chairman introducing Alexander McClure, editor 
of the Philadelphia Times, who contrasted the power of the press and 
pulpit, claiming that the press had done more to conserve and liberalize 
the pulpit than all other causes combined. In other vein spoke Murat 
Halstead, who has been termed the field-marshal of journalism. "There is a 
tendency," he said, "to claim too much for our work. Those of the press, 
if they are wise, will not assume that they are dedicated or consecrated 
more than other folk. They are not a sacred tribe nor a holy order, and 
though it may be well to urge reform, it is not well to make a fad of 
crusading. If the press would guide it must not drive, and while some have 
too little sincerity, others are earnest over much." 

By each department of the press, religious, scientific, commercial, and 
others, separate meetings were held, some of the foremost journalists in 
Europe and the United States taking part in their proceedings; such men as 
M. de Blowitz, correspondent of the London Times; William T. Stead, editor 
of the Review of Reviews; John Brisbane Walker of the Cosmopolitan; Albert 
Shaw and Irving Brown of New York, and Joseph Howard, these being but a 
few of the men who passed a pleasant week in friendly intercourse, in 
sight-seeing, feasting, and merry-making. 

Women were largely represented at the press congresses, holding separate 
sessions by day and attending at night the general meetings held in 
Columbus or Washington hall. The subjects discussed related to women's 
work in journalism, their duties 

Page 925

responsibilities, and qualifications; what they could do in each 
department as news gatherers, as critics, editors and publishers. Then 
there were considered what may be termed the ethics of journalism; matters 
pertaining to personal fitness and conduct, with the relations of 
journalists to society, and especially how news may be obtained without 
violating the sacred privacy of home. Among the speakers were Mary H. 
Krout, chairman of the woman's committee, Helen M. Winslow, Kate Field, 
Mrs, Frank Sheldon, Mrs. Pauline G. Swalm, Mrs. J. C. Croly, Mrs. Lilian 
Whiting, Catherine E. Conway, Clara Bewick, and Susan B. Anthony. At the 
general sessions for men and women there were no prolonged debates; 
controversial points were avoided, and the problems of journalism freely 
and impartially discussed by the foremost members of the profession. 

In the medical congresses which followed, a wide range of subjects was 
considered, both of a popular and scientific nature, including not only 
medicine and surgery, but dentistry, pharmacy, and medical jurisprudence, 
public health and the effect of climatic and geographical conditions in 
relation to health. Though many eminent men were present, the regular 
school of physicians was but imperfectly represented, for before the 
announcement of the medical congresses arrangements had been made for a 
general meeting in Rome. The eclectics and homoeopathists predominated, 
the congress of the latter being in connection with the American institute 
of homoeopathy. 

At the opening session, on the 29th of May, there were the usual addresses 
of welcome, Marie E. Reasner speaking for her sex as chairman of the 
congress of eclectic physicians, while Alexander Wilder claimed that in 
the eclectic school, as founded by Americans, lay the hidden secrets of 
the art of healing. In the afternoon the homoeopathic hospital, near the 
Woman's building, was dedicated as official headquarters, and earlier in 
the day the homoeopathic congress was inaugurated in Washington hall, with 
J. S. Mitchell as chairman and Julia Holmes Smith in charge of the woman's 
branch. In the hall of Columbus the congress of medico-climatology also 
held a session, among the speakers being Charles C. Bonney, Carter 
Harrison, and Roland G. Curtin, president of the National climatological 
association. 

Throughout the week the several sections of the medical congresses 
presented topics of general, as well as of special interest. Women had 
much to say about the ills of their sex and of their offspring, especially 
as to the use of tobacco and liquor by fathers and of tea and coffee by 
mothers. Improper food and the nursing bottle were pronounced to be the 
cause of many of the diseases common to children, accounting also for 
weakly muscles and 

Page 926

awkward gait. Such matters were considered as the relation of homoeopathy 
to public health, the future of the school and its status in European 
countries. The afternoon sessions were devoted to subjects classified 
under the sections of surgery, gynecology, materia medica, clinical 
medicine, opthalmology, otology, laryngology, and paedotrophy, the last 
named department being the one in which women explained their theories as 
to the scientific nourishment of children. During these meetings the fact 
was noticeable that surgery in relation to other branches of medical 
science occupied most attention, and the same remark applies to the 
deliberations of the eclectic physicians and surgeons, their sessions 
concluding with the proceedings of the surgical department, of which R. A. 
Gunn of New York was president. 

But of all the sessions perhaps the most popular were those in which 
representatives were present from India, China, Japan, Australia, Hawaii; 
from Russia, Italy, France, Switzerland, and other European lands; from 
South and Central America; from Mexico, and from every state in the union; 
physicians from all parts of the world assembling together to tell what 
they knew as to the effects of meteorological conditions on the human 
system. By one was discussed the effect of altitude upon heart and lung 
diseases, or a combination of both; by others the influence of elevated 
regions in relation to various ills. The results of bathing were 
considered, and the advantages and disadvantages of sea voyages, while 
even such lofty themes were propounded as planetary influence upon the 
human body. The world itself was treated geographically, and those who 
knew whereof they spoke informed their hearers on such specific matters as 
the cause of eye diseases in Russian and Japan, and the effects of Chicago 
climate on the nasal and respiratory membranes. Consumption was a favorite 
topic, theories supported by arguments and statistics being advanced as to 
the influence of climate on this disease in the United States, in Canada, 
Mexico, Europe, China, India, Japan, Siberia, Africa, and Australia. 
Exercise and occupation were deemed important considerations in the 
treatment of consumption, and an instructive sub-topic was developed in 
the suggestion of national reservations for consumptives. 

What may be termed a side issue of the medical congresses was a session of 
army surgeons, held in the Government building on the 9th of August, with 
Surgeon-general Senn as presiding officer, and attended, as were all the 
rest, by men of eminence in their profession; but as this was convened 
only for the discussion of special topics, and of little interest except 
to military men, it needs no other than passing mention. In the same month 
two days were devoted to the consideration of medical jursiprudence; much 
of the time being given to discussing the legal value of expert medical 
testimony. The degree of responsibility attaching to criminals of unsound 
minds, or when under the influence of liquor was among the mooted points, 
as also were the effects of opium on public health and morals, and the 
mysterious power of hypnotism, the latter treated solely from a scientific 
point of view. 

During the first week of June was held a congress on social purity, 
Archbishop Ireland delivering the principal address at the opening 
session. The social evil was the main topic under consideration, and 
especially the licensing of that evil through legislative enactment. From 
England came a paper by Mrs. Josephine E. Butler on parliamentary 
recognition of immoral practices, and by other speakers were treated the 
regulation system in France, Germany, and British India. At a session held 
under the auspices of the Woman's Christian Temperance union, one of the 
participants described her experience in connection with the Protective 
agency for women. Doctor do Costa spoke of the origin and purposes of the 
White Cross movement, introduced by himself and now freely aided by the 
churches, though without denominational bias. 

The temperance congresses were held under the auspices of home and foreign 
temperance organizations, the representatives of many nations taking part 
in the discussions. As yet neither prohibition, local option, nor high 
license have gone far to remedy or even check the evil; and if in cities 
and states where prohibition laws are in force, the drinking habit is less 
prevalent than elsewhere, statistics do not show it. It was to consider 
the causes and remedies for this common failing of humanity that the 
congresses were assembled, Archbishop Ireland and Frances E. Willard, as 
presidents of the men's and women's conventions, arranging the necessary 
details. 

In truth it was a worthy purpose for which they were assembled, and one 
that called for earnest consideration as among the most necessary and yet 
the most backward of social reforms. While the temperance movement is 
almost a century old, it is very far from converting the world to its 
cause. It was in 1808 that the first temperance association in the United 
States was formed in the New York town of Greenfield. Others followed 
quickly; but of all the doctrine was the moderate use and not the entire 
disuse even of distilled liquors, no restrictions being placed on 
indulgence in fermented drinks. That the crusade was not thus far of a 
serious nature appears in the by-laws of one of the societies, where, as a 
penalty for becoming intoxicated, any member so offending is required to 
treat all the other members. It was not until near the middle of the 
nineteenth century that the word "teetotaller" came into use, or that 
total abstinence was preached or practised even by a few. Thenceforth the 
movement rapidly increased, 

Page 927

organizations multiplying throughout Europe and the United States, with a 
total membership amounting far into the millions. Nevertheless the use and 
abuse of liquor has grown with the growth of population and of wealth, the 
sum thus yearly expended in the United States approximating the amount of 
the national debt, while in Great Britain, Germany, and Russia the 
consumption of intoxicating beverages is even on a larger scale. 

At the temperance congresses held in June a feature was the convention of 
the Women's Christian Temperance union, at which, as vice-president, Lady 
Henry Somerset presided, in absence of the president, Frances E. Willard. 
First spoke Charles C. Bonney and Mrs. Potter Palmer as presiding officers 
of the Auxiliary and of the woman's branch, followed by Mrs. Henrotin and 
Doctor Strong, after whom Lady Somerset paid eloquent tribute to her 
colleague and later read her report. Archbishop Ireland briefly addressed 
the meeting, and at the first day's session delegates from England, 
France, Australia, Canada, Iceland, and Japan told how the work was 
progressing in other lands. The following day was mainly devoted to 
business, varied with brief addresses, the reading of one of the reports 
being interrupted by a memorial service in honor of Mary Allen West, who, 
as a missionary of the union, journeyed more than 3,000 miles in Japan, 
and after delivering nearly 100 addresses, died among those whom she had 
converted to the cause of temperance. 

Among the speakers was Susan B. Anthony, who also discoursed upon the 
question of woman suffrage. John Hall of New York delivered a brief 
address of congratulation and was followed by Wilbur F. Crafts of 
Pittsburgh, who proposed that in 1900 a series of meetings lasting the 
entire year be held at different points throughout the world. As 
superintendent of her department, Mary A. Hunt reported that a law had 
been passed in all but six of the states and territories providing for the 
instruction of pupils in what is termed scientific temperance, 13,000,000 
children thus receiving a compulsory training which, it was hoped, would 
act as a safeguard against the use of liquor. Colonel Parker, grand 
secretary of the order, acted as spokesman of the Good Templars, who, he 
said, were working on parallel lines with the union. As wife of a former 
prohibition candidate for the presidency, Mrs. Bidwell spoke a few words 
on behalf of her husband. But perhaps the most telling speech of all was 
by Madame Zelma Borg, the Finland delegate, who declared that too much 
attention was being paid to the moral aspect of intemperance, and not 
enough to the physical. "Don't harp so much" she 

Page 929

exclaimed, "on this devil, devil, devil business. Drunkenness is a 
physical defect, and our doctors should be brought to treat is as such." 
Thus the sessions were continued, the subject being treated in all its 
aspects by some of the foremost champions of the cause. 

In the middle of June were held the congresses relating to moral and 
social reform, covering a wide range of subjects from philanthropy in its 
broadest sense to the management of soup houses and newsboys' homes. But 
as to the scope and purpose of these congresses I cannot do bettern than 
quote the words of Mrs. James M. Flower, chairman of committee, by whom in 
part they were organized. "This department," she says, "includes the 
public treatment of pauperism; the care of neglected, abandoned, and 
dependent children; the care and treatment of juvenile delinquents; the 
hospital for the sick; the training of nurses and dispensary work; the 
commitment, detention, care, and treatment of the insane; the custodial 
care and the training and development of idiots and feeble-minded 
children; the prevention and repression of crime; the punishment and 
reformation of criminals, and the organization and affiliation of 
charities in cities. The department further includes the work of 
benevolent orders and associations of all kinds whose efforts are directed 
to the amelioration of social conditions." 

Many were the associations represented at these meetings, and as most of 
them were controlled by women entirely or in part, the papers read were 
mainly prepared by women. Among those which attracted most attention was 
the congress of king's daughters and sons, an international organization 
of which nearly a thousand members were present. The opening was of a 
religious character, beginning with the singing of the "Coronation Hymn," 
after which came scripture reading by Mary Lowe Dickinson and prayer by 
Isabella Charles Davis. Mrs. Henrotin spoke a few words of welcome, and 
was followed by Mrs. James M. Flower, chairman of the congresses. As 
president of the order, Mrs. Margaret Bottome spoke of the benefits which 
it had accomplished, telling of the letters she received from women far 
removed from all social privileges, yet in touch with the world through 
the efforts of the society, and aiding its cause so far as lay in their 
power. Other papers were read on this and the following day; Mary Lowe 
Dickinson, recording secretary, giving and outline of the work 
accomplished; Mrs. Elizabeth M. Tilley speaking in behalf of Canada; Mrs. 
Ida G. Stewart for Illinois; Miss M. Schott for Philadelphia; and Mrs. 
Margaret P. Bronson, who represented California, presenting to the 
president a Maltese cross of rare pebbles in the name of the members of 
the golden state. 

At other congresses, both general and sectional topics of interest were 
also discussed. At the international congress of charities, correction, 
and philanthropy, a powerful address was delivered by Mrs. Emily E. 
Williamson, whose theme was "private unofficial supervision of public 
institutions in cooperation with official boards." On the subject of 
hospitals in relation to the public health a carefully studied paper was 
read by John S. Billings, an army surgeon, after which Henry C. Burdette, 
a specialist in London hospital work, spoke of hospital finances, and 
Colonel Nalter of the medical staff of the British army, on the 
applicability of hygiene to the conditions of modern warfare. A speech 
that called forth much discussion was on pauperism in the light of the 
theory of natural selection, by D. G. Ritchie of Oxford, England. On 
municipal reform a stirring dissertation was given by C. H. Parkhurst, 
whose persistent efforts in this direction have won for him more than a 
national repute. These, however, are but a few of the subjects presented, 
their general ranged being indicated in the remarks above quoted, all the 
topics mentioned by the chairman, to whom was largely due the success of 
these congresses, being treated on broad lines, and by men and women well 
informed on the matters whereof they spoke. 

Page 930

Next were held the congresses of commerce and finance, including among 
other subjects, railroads, boards of trade, banking, insurance, and 
building and loan associations. At the opening session the chairman spoke 
the usual words of welcome, George R. Blanchard, who responded on behalf 
of the railroads, reviewing briefly the history of railway transportation 
from 1828, when on the 4th of July, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, laid 
the corner stone of the Baltimore and Ohio line, until in 1893 more than 
175,000 miles of track connected every portion of the union. On behalf of 
the board of trade, George F. Stone, its secretary, stated that in 1892 
the board had distributed 256,000,000 bushels of grain and 14,000,000 
animals on the hoof or as meat products. The cause of building and loan 
associations was championed by Julius Stern; insurance by John H. Nolan, 
and mercantile credits by P. R. Earling, who quoted the statement of 
Webster that credit did a hundred times more to enrich the nations than 
all the mines in the world. 

The meeting of bankers and financiers on the 20th of June was among the 
most interesting of all the sessions of the Auxiliary; for here was 
considered one of the leading issues of the day, Horace White of New York 
speaking of the gold standard and of the silver question as one who had 
the subject well in hand. It is somewhat remarkable, however, that neither 
at this nor at nay other of the financial congresses was the real aspect 
of the silver question considered, as related to the appreciation in gold. 
This is simply that the production of silver in proportion to gold is and 
long has been in quantity as about 33 to one and in value as more than 
three to one, with a coinage for the last twenty years nearly thrice as 
large as for the twenty years preceding. Silver has declined for the same 
reason that iron has declined, or that breadstuffs have declined; mainly 
because the production of silver, as of iron and breadstuffs, is greater 
than the world requires. 

Other addresses were by Lyman J. Gage, chairman of the congresses, Charles 
Parsons of St. Louis, Bradford Ross of New York, and J. J. P. Odell of 
Chicago. At a session of financiers held on the 22d, speeches were 
delivered by Davis Page of Philadelphia, J. W. Vernon of Providence, R. C. 
Lake of South Dakota, and J. W. Blake of Texas, Mrs. Henrotin speaking on 
the subject of women investors, and surprising her audience at the 
financial standing of women as shown by the reports of women presidents 
and cashiers of banks. On the same day the railroad and insurance men were 
in convention, W. G. Veazey and John W. Carey representing the former. For 
the latter Charles E. Kremer read a paper largely in insulation, and 
whether the electricity were generated in the building or came from a 
distance. Thomas J. Borden spoke of the method of reducing fire losses, 
which in the United States average about $125,000,000 a year. Wooden 
buildings, he said, could be rendered almost as safe as fire-proof 
structures; but so far as possible the wood must be placed horizontally, 
for fire burns faster upward than in any other direction. 

Banking, financial, railroad, and insurance congresses were continued on 
the 23d and following days, the subject of mercantile credits also 
receiving attention, with P. R. Earling as presiding officer. In his 
opening address Charles C. Bonney declared that as to the granting of 
credit the supreme quality to be considered was moral integrity, without 
which no credit was possible. H. N. Higinbotham stated that credits were 
too easily obtained, and often as injurious to the receiver as to the 
giver. Goodman King selected as his topic the mercantile agency system; 
its origin, usefulness, and suggested improvement; tracing that system 
from its foundation to its present phenomenal development, a single 
institution now expending $3,000,000 a year in procuring information for 
its patrons. On the books of two such institutions were the names of 1,300,
000 firms, the changes often amounting to 3,000 a day. So perfect was 
their organization that the failures among those reported favorably 
amounted to less than one percent a year. 

At the congress of building and loan associations, this being not the 
least interesting among the group, Mrs. Mary B. Morrell of Little Rock 
spoke of woman's place in this relation, claiming that the system was 
originated by a woman who aided her tenants in laying aside a monthly sum 
against a time of need. The total investments made by women in building 
and loan associations amounted to more than the national debt, and women 
were therefore entitled to a proper representation in the affairs of these 
institutions. Charles N. Thompson contrasted their benefits to the working 
classes as compared with savings banks, and in another address was 
explained their economic value to the entire community. 

A few days before the close of the Fair the American Bankers' association 
held its annual convention, 

Page 931

postponed for the first time since its organization in 1875, on account of 
the severest financial disturbance that had befallen the country for a 
score of years. The sessions were held in the Art Institute, with a muster 
of about 500 delegates representing every section of the United States, 
though as yet the panic had barely spent its force and the after effects 
were severely felt throughout the land. Remedies were suggested by many 
speakers, of whom some were among the foremost of American financiers. As 
president of the association, William H. Rhawn stated that during this 
crisis more than 700 banks, with liabilities exceeding $180,000,000, were 
involved in suspension or failure. James H. Eckels, controller of the 
currency, spoke at length in favor of a bimetallic currency, on behalf of 
which he advanced some forcible arguments. Allen R. Foote of Washington 
pleaded for a sound currency and banking system, for which purpose he 
urged the appointment of a non-political national commission. George A. 
Butler of New Haven advocated a practical plan of banking and currency, 
proposing several amendments to the national banking act. The average 
reserve in commercial cities; such reserve should be freely used when 
necessary and promptly restored as soon as the emergency is past. Other 
measures were suggested by George S. Coe of New York; by William C. 
Cornwell, who would permit the issue of notes by properly capitalized and 
inspected banks, and by Thomas R. Patton, who spoke of the danger of 
making collections by circuitous routes. 

At the following session Joseph C. Hendrix, president of the National 
Union Bank of New York, contrasted the recent panic in Australia with that 
which had occurred in the United States, remarking that the overwhelming 
disasters of the former country were largely due to the lack of such 
financial cooperation as prevailed in the latter. Horace White was in 
favor of an elastic currency, the prime requisites of which were than no 
improper limits be placed upon it, and that it be issuable at once as the 
demand arose. E. O. Leach, a colleague of Hendrix' explained that the 
financial stringency was by no means due, as was commonly supposed, to an 
inadequate volume of metallic currency, of which there was more than at 
any time in the history of the world, the total in November, 1892, 
amounting to $7,633,000,000, against $3,400,000,000 in 1860. Lyman J. Gage 

Page 932

delivered the closing address, after which officers were elected, N. N. 
White of Cincinnati being chosen president and J. J. P. Odell of Chicago 
first vice-president. 

In connection with the financial congresses was treated in its financial 
aspect the question of roads, E. H. Thayer of Iowa stating that the most 
conservative estimate placed the loss to this country, through bad and 
insufficient roads, at $250,000,000 a year, approximately divided among 
the people in proportion to individual expenditure. The remedy, he said in 
substance, was not a question of increased taxation, but of using to the 
best advantage the money annually contributed by the people for road 
purposes. It was within bounds to put the sum spent each year in the 
maintenance of country roads at $80,000,000, and as a rule it went each 
year to keep company with the $250,000,000 devoured by mud. Except for 
thinly settled and mountainous regions, every mile of road used by the 
public and made a thoroughfare by law could be built of stone or gravel, 
made durable and permanent, and always in condition for the heaviest wagon 
loads of produce or merchandise. This could be accomplished within a 
reasonable time and without additional dollar of taxation; merely through 
the proper use of the taxes already paid, with the assistance of a little 
skillful financiering, the borrowing, for instance, of money at low rates 
of interest, on bonds issued by counties or their subdivisions. Employment 
would thus be furnished for surplus labor; the money of the people would 
be kept in circulation, and thrift and prosperity go hand in hand with the 
prosecution of the work, followed by perpetual benefits to every business 
interest. 

During the term of the Fair Chicago became the centre of musical activity; 
for here were nearly all the prominent musical associations of the United 
States, with not a few from foreign lands. At the congresses held the 
first week in July, and at numerous entertainments given throughout the 
season, was represented more than a century of musical progress, from the 
time when Squire Elijah Dunbar led through the intricacies of oratorio 
chorus the Stoughton Musical society, organized in 1786, their successors 
still meeting, as did the charter members, for "an annual supper of hot 
turkey, with nothing stronger than tea or coffee." The Handel and Haydn 
society of Boston, founded in 1815, sent a portion of its celebrated 
chorus under the leadership of Carl Zerrahn, while the Chicago orchestra, 
established in 1891, with Theodore Thomas as conductor, gave expression to 
the musical taste and talent of the west. At the congresses many branches 
were illustrated and discussed, from musical literature, art, and 
criticism, to the management of opera houses, with orchestral art, organ 
and church music, and choral music and training. 

The congresses were opened as usual by C. C. Bonney, E. M. Bowman, 
president of the American college of musicians, delivering the customary 
address of welcome, and speaking of the history and aims of the 
institution. Others spoke in similar vein, suggesting that the college be 
chartered by congress and thus assume a national character. On the 
following day the Music Teachers' National association was in session, 
Bowman as its president. Theodore Presser as its founder, and several 
others tracing the progress and operations of the society. On the 6th a 
concert was given, a programme in which were the works of eminent 
composers being rounded by the contributions of the Thomas orchestra, 
while on the following day were selections form Glueck's Orpheus, by 
Tomlins' chorus of more than 1,000 voices. On the 6th was held a 
convention of Illinois music teachers, who afterward rendered a symphony 
of sacred music, followed by a concert representing the works of Illinois 
composers. 

Musical education was freely discussed, George F. Root, a pioneer teacher 
of music, being chairman of this congress. Many were the remarks as to the 
power of music as a medium of education and as to its formative influence 
on character, Jenkin Lloyd Jones speaking in answer to the question, what 
if music were not in the world; while James R. Murray read a paper on the 
power and effect of music, in which he took the ground that music neither 
expressed nor originated anything, but that it called forth the ruling 
affections. An interesting session was that at which were discussed Indian 
and folk song in music. The paper read by Alice C. Fletcher of Peabody 
museum, who for years had been living and studying among the western 
tribes, was especially instructive, her remarks being practically 
illustrated by a young Omaha Indian. John C. Fillmore and H. E. Krehbiel 
expanded on the subject, the latter dwelling on the part which negroes 
have taken in the folk songs of America. A paper on early phases of 
American music, by Louis C. Elson of the Boston conservatory, contained 
several humorous features, his rendition of "Old Hundred," as it was 
played by the puritans in 1673, causing much merriment. The addresses 
delivered at this session were interspersed with classical selections 
rendered by Clara Krause of Berlin and by the Hamburg Buelow orchestra, 
thus bringing into striking contrast the music of primitive and cultured 
peoples. 

Journalism in relation to music was one of the subjects considered, such 
points being discussed as the mission of the musical journal and the 
function of musical criticism in newspapers. Teachers told what they knew 
of musical instruction in public schools and how to raise the standard of 
instruction. In the last two days of the congress was considered the 
condition of musical education in various states and 

Page 933

countries from the standpoint that music should form a source of mental 
discipline. 

During the musical congresses three special days were set apart for women. 
Mrs. Elizabeth C. Carpenter, as chairman of one of the conference, 
speaking on the subject of women as musical composers. Luisa Coppiani 
suggested numerous points as to the phonation and guidance of the voice, 
severely condemning the explosive method of training and recommending that 
children be taught to sing by note at an early age. Music as a factor in 
philanthropy was a topic which related to the experiences of Charlotte 
Mulligan among the working people of Buffalo. The literary portions of the 
programme were interspersed with vocal and instrumental renditions. On the 
second of the women's days a paper was read by Camilla Urso, who urged the 
employment of women in orchestras as a remedy for careless 
instrumentation. Lillian Nordica told by proxy what she knew about women 
on the lyric stage, and Mrs. Theodore Thomas spoke of the influence of 
amateur clubs on musical taste. 

On the 5th of September was held a Welsh festival of song, in connection 
with the Eistedfodd congress of music, painting, and literature, the 
proceedings calling to mind the days when Druid priests and bards chanted 
their prophecies in the forest depths of ancient Britain. Upon the sward 
in front of the government building twelve upright stones were erected as 
altars around a more massive one in the centre, the chief bard 
proclaiming, as in the days of yore, the Eistedfodd or gathering of bards, 
and offering a prayer that peace and brotherly love might attend the 
festival. To this his twelve assistants, representing the months of the 
year, responded by placing their hands on the sword held aloft by the 
other. Then from the main altar spoke each bard in turn, and concluding, 
was robed by the ancient maids of Cambria, the chief in white, the twelve 
in blue, and all with coronets of oaken leaves. Later there were exercises 
at Festival hall, the feature of which was the singing of male choirs in 
competition for prizes. At night a concert was given, at which was 
rendered for the first time in America the cantata of Prince Llewellyn, a 
composition dear to the hearts of Welshmen. 

At the reception which opened the literary congresses a few eminent 
writers were greeted by hundreds of their readers, the assemblage 
adjourning later to Columbus hall, where C. C. Bonney delivered the 
address of welcome, for the nonce in metrical phrase. Charles Dudley 
Warner responded, and other speakers were Richard Watson Gilder, Max 
Richter, Kate Field, and Walter Besant, who touched on the work 
accomplished by the London society of authors, with its membership of 1,
000 men and women, remarking also that the time had come when literary 
congresses should be held at regular intervals, with a view to fostering 
wholesome literature and satisfying the 120,000,000 readers of English-
speaking race. 

Copyright was the subject considered at the first session of the authors' 
congress, George E. Adams, as chairman, choosing for the theme of his 
opening address future copyright legislation in the United States. He 
compared the copyright law with the patent law, with which it had much in 
common, and expressed the hope that a modus vivendi would be reached 
satisfactory to the reading public and to the authors and publishers of 
Great Britain and the United States. Other addresses and papers were by 
Sir Henry Bergne, George W. Cable, S. S. Sprigge, Watson Gilder, Hamlin 
Garland, A. C. McClurg, President Adams of the University of Wisconsin, 
and Professor Loundsbury of Yale, all agreeing that from the law of 
copyright should be expunged the clauses relating to simultaneous 
publication. 

At the following session, author and publisher and the British society of 
authors was the theme of a carefully written paper by Walter Besant. The 
functions of 

Page 934

criticism was the subject of an address by Charles Dudley Warner, who 
spoke many wholesome truths, though handling somewhat roughly the 
literature of the United States. An instructive essay on criticism as an 
educational force was read by Hamilton W. Mable, and other interesting 
papers were on woman's mission in Italian literature by Madame Salazar; on 
modern fiction by George W. Cable; on the relations of literature and 
journalism by H. D. Traill of London; and on the future of the English 
drama by Henry A. Jones. In connection with the authors' congress 
children's literature was discussed in one of the minor halls, Mrs. Clara 
D. Bates presiding, with Eugene Field, Hezekiah Butterworth, Mrs. D. 
Lothrop, and Mrs. Peattie among those who spoke or recited. 

In the department of history James B. Angell, as presiding officer, 
delivered an opening address on the inadequate recognition of diplomatists 
by historians; Mrs. Ellen H. Walworth explained the value of national 
archives to a nation's life and progress; American historical nomenclature 
was treated by A. S. Spofford, librarian of congress, in a paper read by 
George E. Adams, and Frederick Bancroft spoke of Seward's policy toward 
the south. The present status of pre-Columbian discovery was the theme 
selected by James Phinney Baxter, Prince Henry the navigator by E. G. 
Bourne; the economic conditions of Spain in the sixteenth century by 
Bernard Moses; the union of Utrecht by Lucy M. Salmon; the historical 
significance of the Missouri compromise by James A. Woodburn; these and 
other subjects and speakers, too numerous here to be mentioned, adding to 
the interest of the sessions, two of which were specially held by women. 

At the congress of librarian Melvil Dewey, president of the American 
Library Association, reviewed the progress of libraries since the first 
convention of librarian was held in New York in 1852. In an interesting 
treatise F. M. Crunden sketched the ideal library and librarian, and among 
other themes were state library commissions and national bibliography. In 
the department of archaeology and philology there were lectures on the 
social status of women in ancient Egypt; on the romance of archaeology; on 
Schliemann's excavations at Troy; on Vedic studies; on Assyrian tablet 
libraries, and on "Cyprus, the bible, and Homer," the last by Max Richter, 
who stated that no country was richer than Cyprus in relics illustrative 
of the old testament. W. C. Winslow also read a paper on old testament 
history in the light of modern discoveries, and there were others on 
linguistic and grammatical subjects. 

Folk lore was one of the most interesting of the literary congresses, 
William I. Knapp of the university of Chicago welcoming the delegates to 
the third annual session of the International Folk Lore society, while F. 
S. Bassett, chairman of committee, spoke briefly of this branch of 
literature. "Unspoken," a paper written by Walter Gregor, a Scotch 
clergyman, explained how Scotch peasants cured toothache and more serious 
ailments by certain rites and incantations, and how to Scotch lasses were 
revealed the features of their future husbands, with other curious 
superstitions. In his "Notes on Cinderella." E. S. Hartland stated that 
there had been several hundred Cinderellas, not a few of whom were of the 
male sex. Mrs. Anna R. Watson discoursed on comparative Afro-American folk 
lore, repeating some of the quaintest of negro legends, and calling 
attention to the resemblance between them and those of the Finns and 
American Indians. The cliff-dwellers was the subject selected by Mrs. 
Palmer Henderson, who claimed that they were of Caucasian and not of 
Indian race, in some respects well advanced in civilization and in others 
strangely primitive, even for a people whose homes were probably built 
before the erection of the pyramids. A lecture on the myths, symbols, and 
magic of East Africans by Mrs. French-Sheldon was illustrated with 

Page 936

many curiosities collected in the dark continent by this famous explorer, 
who also displayed the flags which she carried as safeguards through the 
heart of Africa. 

By Vice-president Abercrombie were described the doings of the ancient 
Finns, their wizards and witches, their gods, their myths, and traditions. 
Among other papers were those on superstitions of the races of the 
Northwest by James Deans; on sacred objects of Navajo rietes by Washington 
Matthews; creole folk songs by George W. Cable; the folk lore of the negro 
by Mrs. Anna R. Watson; Voodooism by Miss Mary A. Owen, and Japanese folk 
lore by W. E. Griffiths. The sign language was described by Lieutenant W. 
E. Scott, four chieftains seated on the platform answering by signs the 
questions propounded by the lecturer. Bulgarian wedding ceremonies were 
illustrated by Wulko I. Shopoff, at whose side were natives attired in 
wedding costumes. 

At the education congresses, formally opened on the 17th of July, with 
Bishop Fallows in charge, their sessions continuing until the close of the 
month, were represented all branches of education and almost every land 
with an education system worthy of the name. Teachers have met in 
convention almost since the time when our public school departments began 
to take form and shape; but never before has the subject been treated on 
such broad lines, including all grades and branches, from the kindergarten 
to the university, and from business colleges to institutions for the 
defective classes. Just as the educational display was the crowning 
feature in the department of Liberal Arts, so were the education 
congresses, together with the musical, literary, religious,a and other 
conventions with which they were allied, among the most attractive of the 
World's Fair parliaments. 

After the formal opening in Washington hall, followed by an evening 
reception, the kindergarten teachers and workers were first in session. W. 
N. Hailman, who delivered the opening address, selected as his theme the 
essentials of Froebel's work, whose influence is still more widely felt 
than that of any other educational reformer. It was the recollection of 
his own sufferings as a child that made of Froebel the children's apostle, 
one who had ever their cause at heart and was always at their service. 
From the day when he entered the village school, of which he was 
considered the biggest dunce, until he concluded his university career 
with a brief imprisonment for debt, Friedrich Froebel found nothing in 
school or college to satisfy what he termed "his inner life." It was in 
his solitary rambles amid the Thuringian forest that his real education 
was received. Here he communed alone with nature, learning from the plants 
and trees the lessons that nature teaches, and here it was that he 
conceived the great idea of his life. Like Comenius, who lived two 
centuries before, he looked to nature for the true principles of all 
education. As he who tills the soil creates nothing in the trees and 
plants, so, he considered, the teacher creates nothing in his pupils, 
merely aiding the development of inborn faculties, especially through 
arousing voluntary activity. 

The kindergarten congress was largely in the hands of women; for to women 
this branch of education is almost entirely relegated. But not alone to 
this department was women's participation limited, more than a hundred 
papers being read during the first week's session of the special 
congresses by women prominent in the educational circles of Europe and the 
United States, while at the international congress many of the speakers 
were of the female sex. Of the general committee Mrs. H. M. Wilmarth was 
chairman; of the kindergarten committee, Mrs. E. W. Blatchford; of the 
congress of higher education, Mrs. Harriet C. Brainard, and of that of 
college fraternities, Miss Ethel Baker. The congress of representative 
youths, held on the 18th, was intended only for children and those who 
were to entertain them, Bishop Spaulding, who delivered the principal 
address, stating that he had many times been asked to speak before the 
congresses, but had declined all previous invitations, accepting this one 
because he would rather appear before such an audience than before all the 
kings and princes 

Page 938

in the world. At the sessions of educators for the blind W. H. Millburn, 
"the blind chaplain of congress," was the presiding officer, speaking in 
mellow and resonant voice, with slow deep utterance and in well chosen 
phrase. 

The sessions of the international congresses, attended by delegates from 
many countries, were held under the auspices of the American National 
Educational association, of which William T. Harris is president. Numerous 
were the questions handled simultaneously in the halls of the Art 
Institute; the programme for the 26th of July, for instance, including 
university, college, academy, seminary, common school, and kindergarten 
topics, while on the following day were treated, in addition to some of 
these, musical, technological, industrial, manual, and business training, 
with physical education and rational and experimental psychology. John 
Eaton, formerly United States minister of education, stated that while 100,
000,000 pupils were receiving rudimentary instruction in all the countries 
of the world, more than twice that number had no instruction of any kind. 
A paper was read by the Russian professor Ergraff Kovalevsky as to what 
should be added to the usual elementary course to meet the industrial 
needs of localities or race characteristics. Francis A. Walker, president 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, reviewed the progress of 
technological instruction during the last quarter of a century, stating 
that there was a great demand for students who had received a 
technological training, and dwelling on the importance of such training in 
these days of keen competition. 

Martin Kellogg of the University of California spoke in favor of a comity 
of intercourse among universities, in place of the present rivalry. They 
should be of one spirit rather than of one type, and each should have a 
type of its own, aiming at the highest that was attainable on its proper 
lines of development, and striving after special excellence only in 
certain portions of the wide field of knowledge. This paper aroused much 
discussion among those who would have our universities continue to box the 
educational compass, as now they do, their studies covering or pretending 
to cover almost the entire realm of science and literature. In the 
department of secondary instruction the following will serve as specimens 
of the subjects treated and discussed by some of the foremost educators of 
the day; Should algebra or geometry; should Latin or some modern language 
come first in the course of secondary schools? Should the amount of time 
given to languages; should the amount of time given to mathematics be 
diminished, in order to make room for a more extended course in physics, 
botany, and chemistry? While these are proper subjects for discussion, 
they do not strike at the root of the question, which is rather in the 
method of teaching than in the subjects taught. Latin, modern languages, 
mathematics, natural science, these and many other branches may be used to 
good advantage; but less for the slight knowledge actually acquired than 
as instruments for training the mental faculties. Here is the main purpose 
of all true education, and while a judicious selection of themes is of 
course an important factor, it matters far less what is taught than how it 
is taught. Above all is needed a simplification of text-books, whose rules 
and definitions should be few and brief; clear but concise in expression, 
and stripped of all useless verbiage. 

Of the congress of business and commercial colleges the main purpose, as 
stated by the committee, was to explain the evolution, courses of study, 
methods of training, management, utility, influence, and defects of such 
institutions. In connection with them was considered the work of schools 
of stenography and typewriting, and of associations of business educators. 

By Earl Barnes of California was read before the psychological section an 
interesting paper on children's theology, containing the results of actual 
inquiries among thousands of children from six to fifteen years of age. 
Most of the answers represented God 

Page 939

as a good and great man, with little reference to sterner qualities. Many 
of the conceptions were vague and shadowy, and some were positively 
ludicrous. "He can stand on the ground and reach the sky with his hands," 
said one. "He can look through a key-hole" said another. Heaven was 
described as a city, a palace, or a park; its location just above the 
earth, though some placed it in one of the stars, and a few on earth 
itself. "Whether they go to school there," answered a little girl, "I do 
not know; but I think they must; for they are so patient and good." 
Occupation in heaven was a subject that troubled the little ones, not a 
few of whom spoke of the monotony of celestial life. "I should like to 
visit heaven," remarked a boy of twelve, "but only for a short time." 
Angels were described as women, fairies, or birds; but never as men. The 
devil and his abode were represented in the usual fashion; but these were 
not often mentioned, and only by children under ten years of age; the 
orthodox Satan, with his realm of brimstone and fire, being discredited by 
those in whom the rational faculty was in a measure developed. 

Before the project for a Congress Auxiliary began to take definite shape, 
a meeting was held of some of the most prominent of American engineers 
with a view to holding special congresses in connection with their 
profession. It was then determined to form an association of the various 
engineering organizations in the United States and Canada, and to extend 
invitations to leading members of the profession in every quarter of the 
world. Funds were liberally provided, among other purposes for the 
entertainment of visitors, and soon it became apparent that here would be 
one of the principal features of the Auxiliary. It was at first intended 
to make of these congresses a subdivision of some department of science; 
but at a meeting of delegates held in May, 1891, it was resolved "that the 
importance of engineering entitles it to the place of an independent 
department in the World's Congresses." The resolution was approved by the 
authorities; circulars were issued, and a programme prepared including the 
divisions of civil, mechanical, mining, metallurgical, military, and 
marine engineering, with engineering considered as a branch of education 
and as a profession. On these subjects were read some 220 papers in all, 
many of them being followed by discussions. 

At the opening session in Washington hall, Charles C. Bonney and Octave 
Chanute, the latter as chairman of the meeting and president of the 
general committee, discoursed on the dignity and utility of the 
profession. Sir Benjamin Baker, as vice-president of the British 
institution of civil engineers; Baron de Rochemont for France; Alfred 
Nyberg for Russia; C. O. Gleim for Germany; Hugo Koestler for Austria, and 
Celso Capacci for Italy, all spoke of the interest manifested in these 
congresses, as a part of the great series planned for the interchange of 
thought among the foremost thinkers of the world. 

As with other departments, the sessions of the various divisions were held 
in separate halls; but of the many topics considered only a brief synopsis 
can here be given. At the mechanical congresses, with Eckley B. Coxe as 
president, was recommended the adoption of an international system of 
testing materials, and this was followed by a discussion of the various 
methods of testing locomotives, while at other times were debated their 
limitations as to speed. Among other subjects treated were oil-line 
pumping engines, evaporative surface condensers, water meters, 
calorimeters, and ammonia motors. 

In the division of civil engineering, of which William Metcalf was 
presiding officer, the navigation system of France was explained by F. 
Guillain, inspector-general of roadways and bridges; F. A. Pimental, a 
civil engineer of Portugal spoke of the road, river, and railway 
communications in his country, and a counsellor on buildings to the 
Prussian government illustrated the plan of the railway terminal at 
Altona, whereby through a system of over and under grade structures, all 
surface crossings were avoided. At another session E. A. Kempus and C. A. 
Huet discussed the improvement of the North sea canal in Holland, the 
Lower Weser and its improvements being described by German experts. As an 
instance of the cosmopolitan character of these gatherings it may be 
stated that on one occasion papers were read in person or by proxy from 
citizens of New York and Chicago, of Germany, France, Great Britain, 
Portugal, Mexico, Chile, and New South Wales, the topics varying from 
railroads to the uses of Portland cement. 

At the joint sessions of mining and metallurgical engineers, of which 
Henry M. Howe was president, a Washington statistician, in an exhaustive 
paper on the geological distribution of metals, showed that between 1792 
and 1890 the United States has produced nearly one third of the world's 
supply of gold and more than one fifth of its silver, the proportion 
having largely increased within the last score of years. The lead region 
of southwestern Wisconsin, the lead and zinc deposits of the Mississippi 
valley, and the Bertha zinc mine of Virginia were also among the subjects 
discussed. G. Chesneau of Paris spoke of the ventilation and safety of 
mines, and the detection and measurement of fire damp. The leading part 
which electricity was destined to play in mining was food for much 
speculation based on the inventions of recent years. Improvements in the 
handling and reduction of ores were considered, and an entire session was 
occupied in discussing the different methods of manufacturing steel. 
Richard Akerman described the Bessemer process as conducted in Sweden, and 
H. H. Campbell 

Page 940

considered the open-hearth process in a paper which was both practical and 
scholarly. 

In the departments of military and naval engineering, with Clifton Comly 
and George W. Melville as presidents, the entire subject of coast defense 
was reviewed, and especially were considered the merits and demerits of 
the systems adopted by the United States and Great Britain. Colonel H. L. 
Abbott of the United States army was of the opinion that on account of the 
facility with which troops could be concentrated by rail upon any given 
point, there was little danger of invasion. Our greatest need was to 
prepare against naval attacks, and to that end it was necessary to protect 
our cities form distant bombardment from the ocean; to bar the passage of 
fleets through the narrow channels leading to strategic points, and to 
close wider entrances leading to important land-locked bays or sounds. 
Major G. S. Clarke discussed the mater from the British point of view, 
stating that since the United States navy could not obtain control of 
distant seas, except in alliance with some European power, it should be 
held available for home defense. The natural policy would be to trust to 
the navy for the protection of the coasts and to provide defenses only for 
the rendezvous and depots of its fleets. 

At one of the sessions were discussed the modern infantry rifle and the 
wounds which it inflicted, comparisons being made between recent and old-
fashioned weapons. Captain Blunt of the ordnance department traced the 
gradual decrease in the weight of the bullet, the size of the charge, and 
the diameter of the calibre, arguing that the magazine gun gives to the 
soldier a reserved power while in action, and thus increases his 
confidence. The new projectile, as discharged from the modern rifle with a 
velocity of 2,000 feet a second, would penetrate the earth to a depth of 
25 inches; would pass through wood 30 inches, and would kill or wound four 
men standing in file. Surgeon La Garde illustrated his remarks with 
anatomical specimens, showing that the old style of leaden bullet 
shattered all portions of the bone, while the modern steel missile 
penetrated without fracturing. Hence the use of the new rifle and bullet 
was not only more effective but more humane. 

Page 942

The sessions on engineering as a branch of education, with I. O. Baker as 
chairman, were attended by students and professors from prominent 
institutions in Europe and the United States. John Goodman of the 
Yorkshire college, England, Charles D. Jameson of the University of Iowa, 
and others spoke on the subject of laboratories and the researches 
conducted by students. Field equipment and practice, methods of training, 
and similar topics were also treated in this connection. 

In addition to the session already mentioned, a conference was held on the 
subject of aerial navigation, O. Chanute, Doctor Thurston, and Colonel 
King presiding at the several meetings. Papers were read and the views of 
distinguished scientists considered, general principles being mainly 
discussed and special devices of no practical value excluded from 
consideration. It was shown that aerial navigation could now be classed 
among the science, and that such was the progress with recent years that 
most of the problems connected therewith would appear to be on the point 
of solution. Since the last international conference, held in Paris in 
1889, a measurable success has been achieved in driving balloons at the 
rate of 25 miles an hour; but as such cost and with loads so light as to 
limit their use to war purposes. It was believed, however, that a speed of 
60 to 80 miles would eventually be attained with flying machines 
propelled, like birds, by self-developed energy. 

Still another congress was that which was held for suggesting improvements 
in the great waterways of the world. A prominent engineer explained the 
project for the Nicaragua canal, describing the route from ocean to ocean 
as indicated in the relief map in the Transportation building. The 
principal topic, however, was the proposed ship canal between Lake 
Michigan and the Mississippi River, connecting the commerce of the Gulf of 
Mexico with that of the great lakes and internal waterways. The route by 
way of the head of Lake Superior was considered by the secretary of the 
Duluth board of trade, and that by way of Chicago and the Illinois river 
by L. E. Cooley, a Chicago engineer. Perhaps the most forcible 
presentation of the matter was by an Iowa delegate who said in part: "The 
building of this waterway means higher prices for grain and produce to the 
farmer by making freight cheaper. This canal will carry wheat from the 
Mississippi River to Chicago for two cents per bushel, saving four cents 
per bushel. Suppose it carries 400,000,000 bushels of grain, or one third 
of the crop of 1,200,000,000 bushels produced in the six states of Iowa, 
Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kansas, and Nebraska, the farmers will be 
benefitted by this route to the extent of $16,000,000 on this item alone, 
and on the 800,000 tons of anthracite coal used in this valley will at 
least be saved $2 per ton on the through route from Buffalo, which would 
amount to $1,600,000 more." 

At the closing session all the members of the various divisions met 
together, and the chairman of each reported briefly the proceedings in his 
section. Earnest and telling farewell speeches were delivered by many of 
the leading foreign delegates, and when the meeting separated, it was felt 
that at these congresses the work accomplished tended to the advancement 
of all branches of engineering science. 

At the opening session of the congresses of art and architecture, with 
Charles L. Hutchinson as chairman of the former, Walter C. Larned 
delivered an address on the relation of literature to art, and among other 
papers were those on American painting and sculpture by W. M. R. 

Page 943

French, and on Polish art by Michel de Zmigrodski. The congress of 
photography held several sessions, as also did the congress of ceramic 
art, women being largely represented in the sessions of the latter and 
reading essays in each of the several departments. 

The congress of architecture dealt largely with the architectural, 
landscape, and other constructive features of the Fair, among the speakers 
being D. H. Burnham, F. L. Olmsted, E. C. Shankland, W. H. Holcomb, C. F. 
Foster, and R. H. Pierce but of these matters sufficient mention has 
already been made. An interesting paper by Henry Van Brunt, the artificer 
of the Electricity building, touched on the growth of characteristic 
architectural style in the United States. Frederick Baumann chose for his 
theme "Chicago; a sketch of its rise and development," describing some of 
the old-time buildings and tracing the development of architectural 
science since, in 1846, John Van Osdel, the pioneer of his profession, 
first devoted himself to the making of plans and specifications. The 
elevators of Chicago were marvels of constructive skill, and as for the 
raising of buildings and blocks, it would seem that the men of Chicago 
could raise any structures on earth, unless it might be for the pyramids 
of Egypt. Other themes discussed were the use of color in architecture by 
H. L. Warren of Boston; government architecture by Jeremiah O'Rourke, and 
public competition by J. Gaudet, while as president of the American 
institute of architects, which held here its annual convention, E. H. 
Kendall delivered the usual address. 

In the congresses at which were discussed the various branches of 
government, many subjects were treated of vital importance to this over-
governed country, where what is needed above all else is to undo the 
mischievous legislation which impairs the prosperity of state and nation, 
of community and individual. As proposed by the committee the topics to be 
considered included law reform, international law, the administration of 
justice, political and economic reform, the government of cities, 
executive administration, the protection of property in literature, and 
arbitration and peace. 

At the sessions devoted to law reform and jurisprudence were discussed the 
development of constitutional law in the United States; claims against 
governments; the administration of civil justice in Russia and in Japan; 
the criminal law of Italy; legal education, and admission to the bar. 
Judge Gary chose for his theme the value of precedents, and Judge Hudson 
asked and in part answered the question, how could the administration of 
justice be improved; other speakers on this topic being judges Wakefield, 
Vance, and Hawkins. Simeon E. Baldwin spoke of the duty of the state in 
suits attacking charitable bequests, and J. B. Haskell of the conflict of 
state and federal court decisions. These, however, are but specimens of 
the numerous subjects presented for consideration. 

The suffrage was fully treated, and especially the question of woman's 
suffrage, the speakers on the latter subject including, in addition to 
such prominent advocates as Susan B. Anthony, Isabella B. Hooker, and 
Laura de Force Gordon, women from many foreign lands, from Iceland to 
South Australia. Proportional representation was freely discussed and 
recommended; some of the speakers urging that each political element 
should be represented in the ratio of numbers. Municipal government was a 
favorite topic, and at the congresses held thereon some forcible views and 
statements were presented. David Dudley Field recommended a reduction in 
the number of municipal officers to be elected by popular suffrage; so 
that voters would not need to consider the claims of a host of candidates, 
as to whose fitness or unfitness they could not possibly be informed. Seth 
Low declared the most deep-seated cause of municipal evils and troubles to 
be the disposition to use a city for political purposes without 
consideration for the city itself. Men became partisans before they were 
citizens, and to secure office, city officials must first be partisans. 
Charles S. Ashley called attention to the general condition of cities and 
towns - bad paving, defective sewerage, dirty streets and alleys, inferior 
gas, mismanagement of schools, and extravagance in all departments. As a 
remedy he suggested the appointment of committees of property owners to 
cooperate with officials or agents in making public improvements. Among 
other speakers were John H. Gray and W. J. Onahan, whose remarks dealt 
mainly with the municipal affairs of Chicago. 

Present at the international congress of arbitration and peace were 
prominent advocates of the cause from many cities and nations. From 
Washington came Josiah Quincy, assistant secretary of state; from Boston, 
Hezekiah Butterworth, and Robert T. Paine; from Philadelphia, Alfred H. 
Love; from London, W. Evans Darby; from Germany, Adolph Richter; from 
Italy, V. Zeggio and Hector Pratuzi; while Denmark, Turkey, Africa, and 
other lands had also their representatives. As president of the congress, 
Josiah Quincy read an exhaustive paper on the financial aspect of the 
question, and on the benefits of arbitration in the settlement of 
international disputes. In the United States there was one soldier to 
every 2,640 citizens; while in France the proportion was one in 68, and in 
Germany one in 90. Within the last quarter of a century the United States 
had several times adjusted by arbitration the difference between other 
powers; within the last century 

Page 944

this country had in more than thirty instances arranged for the settlement 
of her own disputes with foreign powers through some form of arbitration. 
To these must be added the settlement of the Bering Sea controversy, the 
most conspicuous example of all, and one that had greatly strengthened the 
cause by attracting public attention, by the novelty and importance of the 
questions involved, and by the tone and character of the proceedings. 

Alfred H. Love declared that there could be no enduring peace while 
nations continued to put their trust in weapons; preaching peace in their 
churches while organizing armies and navies, and spending their substance 
on fortifications and battleships. The appropriations made for such 
purposes should be used for hospitals and merchant-men; should form an 
international relief fund for the aid of mankind, irrespective of 
nationality, wherever there be loss, distress, and suffering. Thus would 
be formed the grandest pension fund that the world had ever known. In 
these remarks is indicated the drift of thought in a general discussion on 
the fraternal union of peoples. By George D. Boardman was read a paper on 
the proper relation of nationality to internationalism, and by Hodgson 
Pratt was prepared one on international animosities and how they may be 
removed. John W. Hoyt delivered a vigorous address; Henry S. Clubb spoke 
on prophecies of peace and war, and Philip S. Moxom on the moral and 
social aspects of warfare, which he denounced as murder, robbery, and 
arson on a gigantic scale. 

Next in the series of congresses were such as could not properly be 
classed in any of the principal departments, or for special reasons could 
not be held at the appointed time and place. Among them were the dental, 
pharmaceutical, and horticultural congresses, and that which dealt with 
the African people and continent. The sessions of the last named were of 
unusual interest, its deliberations including scientific, literary, 
social, industrial, and commercial questions, discussed by many speakers 
and in many phases. The Belgian minister delivered the opening address, 
showing how in the young state of Congo liberty and civilization had 
supplanted slavery and barbarism; how traffic in arms and rum had been 
suppressed, and how Arab slave-dealers were held aloof by a chain of 
defensive outposts. One of the best speeches was from Prince Massaquoi, a 
native of Africa and a graduate of an American college. From Eli 
Sowerbutt, a member of the Manchester Geographical society, was read a 
paper on Africa as a whole, with colored maps displaying the inhabited 

Page 946

portions and the several conditions prevailing therein. Frederick S. Arnot 
explained what the Africans themselves have done to develop Africa, and C. 
C. Adams spoke of that country as a new factor in civilization, touching 
on its resources, climatic conditions, and railroad development. Others 
dealt with the African negro as a manufacturer, tradesman, craftsman, and 
his Americanized brother as a mechanic, artist, musician, journalist, and 
professional man, still others telling what the American negro owed to his 
kindred beyond the sea. Should the Afro-American colonize Africa, was 
among the topics considered, one of the speakers suggesting the formation 
of a chartered company, like that under which Virginia was colonized; but 
to this the sentiment of the congress was strongly opposed; for, as was 
stated, civilized negroes of the better class were needed where they were, 
to counteract the effect of poverty and illiteracy among others of their 
race. 

The action of European powers in relation to the slave trade was freely 
discussed, and especially the effect of the Brussels treaty of 1891, 
reports being received from the British anti-slavery society, embodying 
the most recent and reliable information touching on many of the subjects 
under consideration by the congress. One of the first addresses delivered 
was on the condition of the negro from 1493 to 1893, and by others were 
treated from historical, philosophical, and ethnological points of view, 
the African civilizations of the past and present, with special regard to 
that of Egypt. In addition to the slave trade were also considered the 
efforts to suppress it, and the means for affording the colored races 
opportunities for self-improvement and self-advancement. In this 
connection one of the most telling speeches was delivered by Bishop 
Arnett, before a large and deeply interested audience assembled in 
Columbus hall. 

In the department of science and philosophy were included nearly all the 
branches that could properly be classed under those divisions, the 
sessions lasting throughout the week beginning with the 21st of August, 
though for reasons that need not be stated, some were held earlier or 
later during the season of the Fair. At the formal opening, among those 
who accompanied president Bonney to the platform was Baron von Helmholtz, 
whose appearance was greeted with an outburst of applause such as never 
before was heard within the walls of the Chicago Art Institute. There were 
the usual addresses from the chairmen of the several congresses, among 
them one from Elisha Gray, who presided over the electrical congress, and 
for many years has been striving to bring about an international agreement 
as to electrical unit and standards of measurements. To this end eminent 
men were appointed as delegates by the governments of Europe and the 
United States, to continue the work already accomplished, the Austrian 
delegation being headed by Nikola Tesla, who as an electrician ranks 
second only to Edison, while Canada, Mexico, and China were also 
represented. Thus the decisions reached and embodied in the report adopted 
at the close of the congress were in the nature of a recommendation to the 
participating powers, and in the light of present knowledge may almost be 
considered as final. 

First among the papers read may be mentioned that of Nikola Tesla, who 
selected as his theme mechanical and electrical oscillators, handling the 
subject with his usual skill and illustrating it by a number of startling 
experiments. W. H. Preece, an English inventor and author of note, 
considered the problem of electrical communication through space. After 
referring to Edison's experiments, showing that telegraphic communication 
could be transmitted to or from a moving train, he stated the results of 
his own researches as to the laws and conditions that determine the limits 
of distance between transmitting and receiving agencies. Silvanus P. 
Thompson, one of the most popular writers on this branch of science, 
suggested the means for establishing ocean telephony, claiming that long-
distance telephoning, to the point of freely conversing across the 
Atlantic, was but a question of time. By George Forbes was explained the 
work now in progress for utilizing the Niagra falls in the generation and 
transmission of electricity, the aim being to supply power for factories 
within a radius of 200 or 300 miles, and perhaps for propelling boats on 
the Erie and other canals. 

Before the congress of chemists many interesting papers were read; among 
them that of John W. Langley on the works and aims of the committee on 
international standards as to the composition of steel. H. D. Richmond 
spoke of the analysis of diary products; Ernest Millau of the best methods 
of oil analysis, and at other sessions agricultural chemistry was 
thoroughly discussed, especially in relation to soils and the analysis of 
fertilizers. 

Page 947

Not a few of the speakers were from Europe and Australasia, a Russian 
professor from the Polytechnic school of Riga presiding at one of the 
sessions. In connection with the chemical division was held the congress 
of pharmacists, at which the education and examination of students in 
schools of pharmacy were the principal subjects of discussion. At a 
special session held by women, the chairman, Mrs. Ida Hall Robey, stated 
that there were more than 700 registered pharmacists of the female sex in 
the United States. In the geological division women also met in separate 
convention, among the subjects treated being the granites of New England 
and the fossils of the upper Silurian group. By James Geike, of the Scotch 
geological survey, a valuable paper was prepared on the glacial succession 
of the British isles and northern Europe. Glacial succession in Sweden, in 
Switzerland, and in the United States were also treated by eminent 
geologists, and other questions considered were pleistocene climatic 
changes and the correlation of glacial formations in opposite hemispheres. 

Meteorological topics were discussed by delegates from many states, and 
especially by the chiefs of weather bureaus, the principal subjects 
considered being the proper location, elevation, and shelter of 
instruments. In an interesting paper Frank H. Bigelow discoursed on the 
possibility of long distance forecasts, stating that after a thorough 
investigation he had obtained results which clearly indicated that the 
magnetic influence of the sun upon the earth is attended with well defined 
effects on its atmosphere. John Eliot of Calcutta took for his subject the 
prediction of dry and rainy seasons, and Father Faura, director of the 
observatory at Manila, the signs which precede typhoons in the Philippine 
islands. 

In the astronomical department Alvan G. Clark, by whom were fashioned the 
lenses for the Lick and Yerkes equatorials, spoke of the future mechanism 
of telescopes, claiming that the limit of size and power was yet far from 
being attained. T. J. J. See touched on the investigation of double-star 
orbits. In a darkened room George E. Hale described and illustrated with 
stereopticon views the process of taking photographs of the sun, and by J. 
Keeler were traced the wave lengths of the principal lines in the spectrum 
of the nebulae. 

At another session Egon von Oppelzer read a paper on contributions to 
solar physics, and W. H. Pickering attacked the theory that the moon was a 
dead planet, asserting that there were evidences of the existence of water 
and atmosphere. In this connection may also be mentioned the mathematical 
section for the discussion of mathematics in relation to astronomy. 

At the philosophical congress, held in connection with those which dealt 
with physics, R. N. Foster chairman of committee, remarked that 
philosophy, as compared with the solid work of science, was like a comet 
sailing among the stars, very large of head and seemingly dangerous, but 
after all nothing more than vapor. Nevertheless philosophy was the mother 
of all the sciences, taking up their many threads and presenting them in 
their essential unity. Moreover it pervaded the entire domain of 
education; and education, not money, was what made the man. A paper on the 
Hegalian system of dealing with criminals called forth much discussion, 
one of the speakers touching on the methods advocated by Herbert Spencer 
and Leslie Stephenson, who were in favor of reformatory rather than 
vindictive punishment. Among other subjects considered were the ethical 
aspects of pessimism; the twofold nature of knowledge, imitative and 
reflective; the philosophy of education, and synthetic education, Josiah 
Royce of Harvard University reading the final paper on Kant and causation, 
prepared by W. T. Harris of Washington. 

In the congress of psychology were treated mesmerism, hypnotism, 
clairvoyance, and kindred topics, Elliott Coues, as chairman, reviewing in 
his inaugural address the entire field of psychological science, past, 
present, and future. "While not as yet what may be termed an orthodox 
science," he said, "the facts on which it is based have always existed, 
and this is the first time that is has received official recognition from 
government." Many who have long been students of the strange phenomena 
connected therewith read papers tending to correct crude ideas commonly 
entertained on the subject. A few days later were held the congresses on 
anthropology, ethnology, and zoology, W. F. Putnam, as chief of the 
Anthropological department of the Fair, taking a prominent part in the 
proceedings. 

Labor was the next subject for consideration; nor the labor question as it 
is commonly understood, but labor in its highest and broadest sense, as 
discussed, though with much diversity of view, by its sincerest friends 
and champions in the United States and in many foreign lands. From England 
especially came many leaders of the cause, and among those who cooperated 
with the committee, personally or as corresponding members, were William 
E. Gladstone, Sir John Gorst, home secretary for India, Richard T. Ely, 
and Carroll D. Wright. 

Page 948

Cardinal Manning accepted an honorary membership, and said Cardinal 
Gibbons: "I regard the consequences as the most important feature of the 
Exposition, and the labor congress as the most important of the 
congresses." 

In his opening address C. C. Bonney spoke of the problems which the labor 
movement presented. Others followed in similar vein, among them Bishop 
Fallows, who touched on the attitude of the church as a friend to the 
laboring man. By Herbert Barrows was presented a message of greeting and 
sympathy from the workingmen of England, supplemented by a few remarks of 
his own. Kate Field was in favor of a department of labor in the cabinet, 
and of a practical labor bureau, with affiliated societies in every 
section of the United States. In a paper prepared by Lady Dilke was told a 
pitiful story of the hardships of British workingmen, of those who toiled 
in the foul atmosphere of sweat-shops and factories for less than would 
furnish the scantiest of daily bread; makers of match-boxes, for instance, 
receiving but seven shillings for 84 hours of labor. Among the speakers at 
the opening session were John H. Gray of the Northwestern University; 
William Clarke, secretary of the British advisory council; Doctor Zacher 
of Berlin, and Victor Delahaye of the superior council of labor of France. 

At another session Samuel Gompers, in answer to the self-proposed 
question, "What does labor want?" said that it wanted the earth and the 
fullness thereof; and first of all an immediate advance in wages and 
reduction in time - eight hours a day, with fewer tomorrow and fewer still 
the next day. But while there was other nonsense of this kind, the 
discussions of the labor parliament were for the most part of a rational 
and instructive character, as at times were even the remarks of Samuel 
Gompers. Edwin McGlynn discoursed on the destiny of the labor movement, 
advocating the single tax doctrine as one that would improve the laborer's 
condition. On the latter question spoke also Henry George, who explained 
the meaning of the phrase and how the idea was suggested to him by the so-
called land boom in California, which carried the price of what before 
were almost worthless tracts to $1,000 an acre. General Weaver, Mary E. 
Lease, and others stated their views in this connection, and a single tax 
platform was adopted, the final clause in which, recommending public 
control of common ways, as for transportation and the furnishing of gas 
and water, was amended on the motion of Hamlin Garland. 

From Edward Everett Hale was read an essay on the results of cooperation 
and the sharing of profits as exemplified by the Nelson Manufacturing 
company of St. Louis, and by N. O. Nelson, vice-president of that company, 
were further explained its workings. The latter was one of the best papers 
read, full of sound, common-sense, practical suggestions, and without 
trace of communism, anarchy, or socialistic drivel. Said Nicholas P. 
Gilman, who followed, "To give a workman equal opportunity with his 
employer is the philosophy of the whole labor question, and an example 
like this is worth all the rhetoric in the world." The education of the 
workman and especially his industrial training, was considered, as also 
was the question of weights, measures, and coinage, one of the speakers 
advocating international mints and an international system of weights and 
measures. At a separate session of women Lucy Salmon of Vassar college 
discoursed on economic questions in domestic service, and Mrs. Helen 
Campbell on the industrial condition of women and children. A sensible 
paper was the one read by Catherine Coman of Wellesley college, showing 
that not only were women's wages steadily advancing, but during the 
present century the occupations open to women had increased a hundred 
fold. 

The labor congresses closed on labor day, the 4th of September, on the 
Sabbath preceding which, clergymen representing several denominations met 
in Washington hall before an audience of 2,500 persons, assembled to hear 
from the churches their messages of hope and cheer. After a brief address 
from Henry D. Lloyd, who acted as chairman, Archbishop Ireland spoke on 
the Catholic church and the labor question, touching at length on the 
encyclical relating to the condition of labor from Leo XIII. Speaking for 
the protestant denominations, John P. Coyle stated that the church owed a 
duty to labor, and if that duty were done the labor problem would not 
exist. Representing the Hebrew faith, Emil G. Hirsch remarked that there 
was no Jewish pulpit but felt the thrill of the prophet's words, that he 
who planted the vine should eat of the fruits thereof. The age to preach 
the resignation of the weak was past. The law was often made a fetich, and 
charity a makeshift. Had we more justice, we should not need charity. In a 
paper written by George E. M. McNeill was recommended an increased tax on 
land to give work to the unemployed, and Herbert Burrows outlined the 
attitude of socialism toward labor and the church. 

Of all the sessions held in the Art Institute none attracted more 
attention than those of the so-called parliament of religions, preceded by 
the catholic congress and followed by denominational and missionary 
congresses, with those of the evangelical alliance and other associations 
and brotherhoods.

Page 949

Here were represented all christian sects and creeds, the Hebrews also 
participating, while from Hindostan and China came men who explained how 
much there was in common between the doctrines of Christianity and those 
of Brahminism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Points of agreement and 
divergence in belief were discussed, with the achievements of churches and 
missions in the common cause of humanity, these gatherings receiving the 
endorsement of the religious leaders of the world, not a few of whom were 
present in person. 

On the morning of the 4th of September the hall of Columbus was crowded as 
never before it had been; for this was the day appointed for the opening 
of the catholic congress. The hall was tastefully decorated, a fringe of 
plants encircling the carpeted platform, with a large bouquet of roses on 
the desk, and in the background festoons of white and yellow bunting. On 
the right was a bust of Cardinal Manning; on the left one of Cardinal 
Newman, and smiling as in benediction on the audience, the portrait of Leo 
XIII, beneath it those of Washington and Columbus, below which was the 
papal banner. At the head of the procession was escorted to the platform a 
gray-haired man, benign of aspect and attired in robes of scarlet. It was 
Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore, to whom was accorded the place of honor. 
Next to him were archbishops Feehan, Ryan, Ireland, Hennessey, Jannsens, 
and other dignitaries of the church, with a number of priests and laymen. 
By Archbishop Ireland were briefly outlined the purposes of the congress; 
Cardinal Gibbons urged that all discussions be conducted in a spirit of 
mutual forbearance, and Archbishop Redwood of New Zealand said that he had 
travelled 9,000 miles to go to school again at the greatest school on 
earth - the congresses of the Auxiliary. By William J. Onahan, secretary 
of the committee on organization, was read a letter of greeting and 
approval from the pope and by Father Nugent a similar epistle from 
Archbishop Vaughan, successor to Cardinal Manning. Monseigneur Satolli 
delivered an eloquent address in Latin, and after further speeches the 
first regular session was convened. 

To relate in detail the proceedings of the catholic or other religious 
congresses is foreign to the purpose of my work, not only on account of 
their length, but because in these pages is no place for theologic or 
polemical discussion. Moreover, to the members of each denomination its 
tenets are already known, and here to repeat 

Page 951

them would be tiresome iteration. Suffice it to mention in briefest 
outline the more salient features, not omitting the views expressed by 
those to whose creeds the Christian world is a stranger. 

Passing then to the parliament of religions, it may first of all be stated 
that while doubtless the only one at which all the great historic faiths 
were represented, there is nothing new in its plan; for the project for a 
congress of representatives of religious faiths is older than Christianity 
itself. Says John H. Barrows, chairman of the committee, "H. Dharmapala of 
Calcutta, who was to speak for the Buddhist church of Ceylon, thus wrote 
as to the religious parliament: "Two thousand years ago, just such a 
congress was held in India by the great Buddhist emperor, Asoka, at the 
modern city of Patua, and the noblest lessons of tolerance therein 
enunciated were embodied in lithic records and implanted in the four 
corners of his empire. Here is one extract: King Plyadasi honors all forms 
of religious faith, and enjoins not only reverence be shown in such manner 
as is suited to the difference in belief.'" 

The idea of a congress of religions, or what has been termed a sympathy of 
religions, has been many a time suggested both in poetry and prose, from 
the days of Cominius to those of Tennyson, who quotes the following 
inscription for a temple in Kashmir: "O God, in every temple I see people 
that see thee, and in every language I hear spoken, people praise thee." 
And thus in his Akbar's Dream, one of the most recent of his poems. 

I dreamed
That stone by stone I reared a sacred fane,
A temple, neither pagod, mosque, nor church,
But loftier, simpler, always open-doored
To every breath from heaven; and Truth and Peace
And Love and Justice came and dwelt therein. 

By some of the foremost thinkers of the world, both among clergy and 
laity, the project was strongly commended, and if here and there it was 
condemned, this was only among the prejudiced and narrow-minded. "Religion 
cannot be exhibited," wrote and English clergyman. "But surely," as Doctor 
Barrows remarks, "its great part in human history can be impressively 
told; its achievements can be narrated; its vast influence over art, 
ethics, education, liberty can be set forth; its present condition can be 
indicated; its missionary activities can be described, and best of all the 
spirit of mutual love, of cosmopolitan fraternity can be disclosed and 
augmented." By the various denominations, about thirty in number, were 
expounded what they deemed to be the special truths committed to them, the 
practical results accomplished, and especially such as shed lustre on 
their annals. 

It was an impressive spectacle that marked the opening of the parliaments 
in Columbus hall, on the 11th of September, and never before perhaps was 
seen at one time and place such diversity of feature and costume. Men from 
almost every state and European nation were here; here were Hindoos in 
their gaudy robes; Japanese in their picturesque garb, and Chinamen in 
mandarins' attire. When the procession approached the platform, headed by 
C. C. Bonney and Cardinal Gibbons, there was neither vacant seat nor 
standing room on floor or gallery. Then came a long array of bishops and 
archbishops, of priests and princes, of men and women of every race and 
color, such as Addison might have dreamed of in his vision of Mirza. After 
prayer and hymn, President Bonney briefly outlined the programme, and was 
followed by Doctor Barrows with an address of welcome. Then spoke 
Archbishop Feehan, Cardinal Gibbons, Augusta Chapin, Harlow N. 
Higinbotham, Alexander McKenzie, Archbishop Dionysios Latas, head of the 
Greek church, P. C. Mozoomdar on behalf of the Brahminists, and Pung Kuang 
Yu for the followers of Confucius. 

Among the speakers at other sessions were Lyman Abbott, whose subject was 
"religion essentially characteristic of humanity;" E. L. Rexford, whose 
theme was "the religious intent;" Edward Everett Hale, who was received 
with much enthusiasm, and Joseph Cook, who declared that he had no 
sympathy with the milk and water, lavender styles of modern religion. 
Rabbi Mendes spoke in relation to the Hebrew faith; H. Toki explained the 
tenets of Buddhism; Kinza Riuge M. Hirai those of the Japanese, 

Page 952

and Shibata Reuchi those of the Jikko sect of the ancient Shinto faith. 
Shibata, attired in robes of white and yellow silk, created somewhat of a 
sensation by kissing on the cheek several motherly dames who wished to 
shake hands with and congratulate him, but this was merely the Jikko 
method of salutation as was so accepted. 

By Archbishop Kane was read a paper from Cardinal Gibbons on the needs of 
humanity supplied by the catholic religion. Mrs. Eliza Sunderland spoke of 
comparative religions, and from T. B. Thiele of Leyden University came a 
treatise on comparative theology. Thomas W. Higginson, in an essay on the 
sympathy of the religions, stated that the first religious parliament in 
the United States was simultaneous with the nation's birth; George 
Washburn, president of a college at Constantinople, presented an 
exhaustive treatise on the points of contact and contrast between 
Christianity and Mohammedanism, and Mrs. Ormiston-Chant spoke in favor of 
a new religion. From Kung Ho of Shanghai was read his prize essay on 
Confucianism, and from Monseigneur D'Harlez of Louvain University, a paper 
on the comparative studies of the world's religions. Royalty was also 
represented at the parliament, Prince Wolkonsky of Russia discoursing on 
the social aspects of religion, and Prince Chudhadharn on Buddhism as it 
exists in Siam. From Lady Henry Somerset came a gracious message, and from 
such eminent men as Max Muller and Thomas Dwight, papers filled with the 
ripest fruits of scholarships. A Hindoo monk complained of the patronizing 
fashion in which he and his fellow orientals had been treated by some of 
the speakers. "We have been told to accept Christianity," he said, 
"because Christian nations are prosperous. We look at England, the richest 
Christian nation of the world. Why is she rich and prosperous? Because she 
has her foot upon the neck of 250,000,000 Asiatics. We read history and we 
see everywhere that Christianity has conquered prosperity by cutting the 
throats of its followers. At such a price the Hindoo will have none of 
it." 

The science of religions was also discussed, and especially that of 
theosophy, among the speakers being Anne Besant, who discoursed on Karmic 
law; G. W. Chakravati, who showed what theosophy was; H. Dharmapala, who 
pronounced it the basis of all religions; Henrietta Muller, who stated 
that it was revealed the essential humanity of the deity and the ultimate 
divinity of man; William Q. Judge and Mrs. Cooper-Oakley, who explained 
the theosophic ideas of brotherhood and of death. At the congress of 
Christian scientists the first paper was read by E. J. Foster-Eddy, its 
president. In an address on scientific theology, John F. Linscott declared 
that Christianity as a Christian Science was not a religious system but a 
universal religion, with a universal principle, and capable of universal 
practice. Other addresses were on the resurrection, on spirit and matter, 
on God incorporeal, mortals and immortals, prophetic scriptures, healing 
the sick, the scientific universe and the brotherhood of man. 

Thus the parliament of religions was continued until near the close of the 
month, some of the speakers mentioned and many others delivering addresses 
at several sessions. With them and after them were held the meetings of 
the several religious denominations, whose proceedings cannot here be 
described in detail It may be stated in general terms that at the 
parliament and congresses were discussed the theistic teachings of the 
great historic faiths, the nature and life of man, his place in the 
universe, his spirituality, immortality, and his relations and duties to 
God. Religion was considered apart from morality, as were the various 
systems of religion, past and present, their defects, and what they have 
done for mankind, together with religion in the family, in relation to the 
marriage bond, to home and education, to society and social problems, to 
science, art, and letters. The fraternity of peoples, the condition and 
reunion of Christendom and of the whole human family, with the 
characteristics of the coming faith which should united mankind in bonds 
of religious unity, were also among the subjects treated, the parliament 
closing with expressions of peace and good will in which all the 
participating sects and nations were represented. 

At the mission congresses the speeches covered a large variety of topics, 
among those which attracted most attention being the address of Frank M. 
Bristol, who took for his subject the unevangelized in Christian lands, 
attacking the churches in vigorous style for expending their yearly 
millions in sending missionaries to foreign lands, while near almost every 
church in Christendom were as dark spots as existed anywhere on earth. 
Other addresses were on problems and methods, Sunday schools as 
cooperative agencies, bible societies, tract and book societies, 
denominational comity and cooperation, and a wide range of subjects 
touching on missions, and their work, George Smith of Edinburgh, in his 
"geographical survey, especially the totally unreached fields," outlining 
the condition of foreign lands, and presenting statistics as to the great 
mission fields of the east. Women held separate conference under the 
auspices of the International society of woman's missions, and later, 
joint session with the mission congresses. 

Page 953

At the congress on Sunday rest, which followed, Rabbi Felsenthal made some 
sensible remarks in connection with the Sabbath in Judaism, denouncing all 
legislation which would enjoin on unwilling minorities one certain day for 
keeping the Sabbath and one certain manner of keeping it. Delegates from 
several foreign lands were present, and the papers read were numerous, 
ranging from Sunday closing at the Fair to Sunday rest from the work of 
railroad transportation. 

During the first week of October was held a congress on patents, 
trademarks, and inventions, these being classed under the division of 
intellectual property and thus belonging to the department of government. 
Many were the papers read by men and women of whom not a few were 
specially qualified to deal with the subjects under debate. Of unusual 
interest was the address of Judge Henry W. Blodgett, whose recollections 
dated back to 1831, when among the problems of the day was how to gather 
and garner the harvest of the prairies. First was invented a plough that 
would "scour," and then a more serviceable kind of harrow. The cradle 
supplanted the sickle and the harvester followed, as did the thrashing 
machine and the fanning mill. Next came the combination machine which 
cleaned the grain and placed it in bags, these and other inventions 
attracting westward an intelligent class of settlers, to whom the use of 
superior farming implements afforded time and means for self-improvement 
and self-advancement. 

R. J. Gatling, inventor of the gun which bears his name, welcomed the 
delegates on behalf of the American association of inventors, of which he 
was president. The greatest monument that the country possessed he 
pronounced to be the patent office, from which the first year three 
patents were issued, and in the year 1892 more than 36,000. To Americans 
were granted twice as many patents as to all the remainder of the world, 
and some of them were of incalculable benefit. By Mrs. Charles Henrotin 
was read a paper prepared by Helen Blackburn of London on the inventions 
of women. The first patent issued to a woman was in 1637, for preparing 
tinctures, as of saffron and roses, and the second in the following year, 
for an implement for cutting wood into thin pieces, to be made into band-
boxes and sword sheaths. Thenceforth until the end of the eighteenth 
century the names of only 15 women were found in the records of the 
British office, with about 40 for the first half of the nineteenth, and 
nearly 1,800 between 1852 and 1884, since which latter date there has been 
a steady increase, year by year, in keeping with the growth of education, 
wealth, and luxury. 

John W. Noble, ex-secretary of the interior, spoke of the interdependence 
of patents and their relation to the government. Largely through the 
inventions of the era of civil strife the republic was enabled to sustain 
its armies and prosecute the war; for the productive lands of the west, 
though depleted of men, were well supplied with agricultural machinery of 
improved and recent pattern. William F. Draper, chairman of the house 
committee on patents, discoursed on the influence of inventions on cotton 
industries, showing how manufactures had been fostered by improvements in 
machinery for gathering and preparing the crop and shaping it into 
fabrics. A plan for an international union for the protection of property 
in patents, prepared by Swiss contributors, provoked considerable 
discussion, several of the speakers urging the abolition of the section of 
the revised statutes which limited the term of an American patent to the 
shortest term of a foreign patent. 

Agriculture was the next topic presented for consideration, and in this 
group were included not only farming and stock-raising, but farm life, 
training, and experiment, the construction and care of roads, the 
veterinary art, and among other subjects, ornithology in its relation to 
insect pests. To Samuel W. Allerton, who, with Edwin Walker, constituted 
the first congressional committee to secure the location of the Fair, was 
intrusted the general direction of the congresses, and present on the 
platform at the opening session were several chiefs of departments, with 
many distinguished visitors from foreign lands. By C. C. Bonney were 
briefly stated the main objects of the agricultural congresses; Allerton 
declared the condition of the farmer in every way preferable to that of 
the industrial classes in the city; Lady Somerset related briefly her 
experience as an English landowner, giving way to Joanne Sorabji of 
Hindostan, who spoke of the magnificent specimens of physical womanhood in 
the agricultural districts. 

W. J. Buchanan, chief of the Agricultural department, declared that he 
would not exchange the outdoor education he had received in the country 
for all the college lore that could be placed before him. But the speech 
which attracted most attention was that of J. Sterling Morton, secretary 
of the national department of agriculture, who inveighed against granges 
and other agricultural organizations, which, as he said, "for political 
purposes farmed the farmer." The gauge of battle thus thrown down was 
taken up on the succeeding day by Colonel J. B. Brigham of Ohio, who thus 

Page 954

took exception to the secretary's remarks. "Every advance, every new 
invention of farm machinery, every experiment which has been helpful to 
the farmer, has been promoted by the grange, and if it were not for the 
grange and the alliance, our country would have no secretary of 
agriculture." Continuing, he asserted that it would be better for congress 
to have more of the agricultural element in the halls of legislature, and 
then when the great struggle came between political corruption and 
political integrity, the country would turn for salvation to the men of 
the farm. Agricultural interests in the south were discussed by a 
Louisiana woman, who spoke of the close attention to drainage, 
fertilization, and suitable machinery, as applied to the production of 
sugar, claiming that in no industry common to the United States was 
cultivation more thorough than on a sugar plantation. Other speakers dealt 
with the educational and social features of farm organization, and with 
what Connecticut had done for agriculture, especially in the raising of 
choice live-stock and the establishment of state experimental stations. 

In the congress on agricultural training and experiment, the directors of 
the stations scattered through the states, forming the membership of the 
national association, discussed the work of their institutions and their 
plans for the future. The road congress was of special interest to the 
farming community. It was held by the chairman, Theodore Butterworth, that 
while the United States led the world in its railways, it was behind 
European countries in highway roads. A. A. Pope of Boston took an active 
part in the proceedings, as from the commencement he has in the agitation 
over defective roads, so detrimental to the well-being of American 
agriculturists. Various plans were suggested for the construction and 
drainage of highways, with systems of cooperation between farmers and 
residents of villages, or of county and state taxation. The general 
consensus of opinion, however, seemed to favor special legislation by the 
states. 

By chief Buchanan was prepared the programme which, during July and 
August, was carried out in the assembly hall adjoining the Agricultural 
building. Here subjects were discussed relating to all the divisions of 
his department; horticulture, agriculture proper, live-stock, and 
forestry, the lectures on forestry alone covering a period of ten days. 
Such topics were considered as the scientific care of forests, the latest 
methods of tree planting, the effects upon climate of tree culture and of 
the denudation of woodlands, with the best means of destroying insects 
harmful to the crops. There was also contributed by delegates a great 
variety of information concerning the forests and timber trees of Europe, 
Asia, Africa, and America. Among those who participated were B. E. Fernow, 
chief of the government forestry division; A. S. Hardy, Canadian 
commissioner of crown lands; Robert Hudson of New South Wales; Alfred B. 
King, commissioner for Siberia; J. J. Grinlinton, commissioner for Ceylon; 
C. B. Waldron of the state agriculture college at Fargo, South Dakota; C. 
S. Sargent of New York, and M. L. Saley of Chicago, the last named speaker 
taking as his text "ignorance concerning woods." 

J. C. Vaughan was general chairman of the horticultural congress, which 
dealt with subjects of special and general interest, J. M. Samuels of the 
horticultural department, and John Thorpe, superintendent of the 
floricultural bureau, being members of the executive committee. 
Representatives were present from Germany, France, Holland, Denmark, and 
other European countries where the raising of fruits and flowers has been 
made a study, as well as from the eastern, middle, and western states, in 
which these industries are most developed. The seedsmen and nurserymen 
occupied separate halls, the papers submitted covering such topics as the 
care of public grounds, the work of experiment stations, the past, 
present, and future of floriculture in the United States, and how best to 
protect the interests of those who first raised distinct species of 
plants. L. Wittmack of Berlin took for his theme ""horticultural displays 
at future world's fairs," intimating that despite its wonderful landscape 
effects, the Columbian Exposition was somewhat lacking in floricultural 
adornment, especially in contributions from foreign lands. 

In connection with the agricultural congresses was one on household 
economics in relation to farm and village communities. This was of course 
in the hands of women, and of the papers read, especially those on 
domestic service, some of the most interesting were from foreigners to 
whom have been accorded exceptional opportunities for studying the 
problems of domestic life. Frau Morgennstern of Germany, Frau Meyer of 
Switzerland, and Frau Bundy, president of the Housekeepers' union of 
Austria were all agreed that in their several countries conditions 
differed but little from those which here obtain. There was the same 
difficulty in procuring competent and reliable servants, the same 
restlessness and instability of character. In Austria, said Frau Bundy, 
the situation was even worse; for the laws pertaining to domestic service 
were such as to provoke litigation between employers and employed. 

Page 955

Mrs. John Wilkinson was chairman of the congress on household economics, 
and Mrs. Laura D. Worley of the one on farm life and mental culture. At 
the latter most of the addresses were from women; but among the 
participants were many male representatives from foreign lands. All the 
speakers dealt with agricultural training in their several countries, some 
of them also touching on agricultural societies and resources. 

Last on the programme was the real estate congress, held under the 
auspices of the National Real Estate association of the United States, its 
session beginning a few days before the close of the Fair. In his opening 
address C. C. Bonney touched on the history of land tenure, which among 
the Aryan races, even in prehistoric times, was of a threefold nature - 
first, in common for pasture or public use; second, by allotment for 
cultivation or business purposes; third, by allotment for homes. Long 
before history was written, the homestead was held inviolable, and in the 
doctrine of homestead exemption there was nothing new; for here neither 
king nor officer might enter unbidden. Homes of moderate value should be 
free from taxation, and conveyances simple, easily executed, and easily 
understood; so that property, when not bequeathed by will, would descend 
to those to whom of right it belonged. Thomas B. Bryan, who was appointed 
chairman, als