Life in Old Virginia - Chapter XIX



CHAPTER XIX. LANDS AND PRODUCTS

I. SEASONS.

There are two beautiful seasons of the year in Tidewater Virginia. First 
is the early spring time when the forests bud and the flowers blossom; 
then the air is filled with the sweet odors exhaled by nature, in her 
efforts to encourage verdure to wake from the cold slumbers, and to smile 
upon the earth and spread its green mantle over the landscape, and free 
the waters from their frigid chill, that they may romp and run free from 
the mountains to the sea shore undisturbed. This is the most welcome 
season of the year. It is then the busy time for the tiller of the soil, 
and the fisherman hastens to prepare his nets for the harvest which the 
warm waters will bring to them. The following is typical of the negroes' 
thought of Spring time. 

O, Miss Spring time,
We's glad to see 'taint so,
We's fear'd dat of Miss Wintah
Had kiver'd yo' up wid snow;
But dar cum spry Miss April,
She done jes' dried huh eyes,
An' bresh'd away de heavy clouds
W'at hid de shiny skies,
Den we seed 'long de road side
De flowers yo' use to bring,
An' we know'd it by de "Daises"
Dat yo' wuz sho'ly spring.

We he'erd of Mistah Bullfrog
A hoppin' to his home,
An' steddy shoutin' to hissef
"Jug-o-rum", "Jug-o-rum"
Lissen w'at dat young frog say
-He's jes' woke up from sleep
I knows he's in some trubble
-- "Knee deep", "knee deep", "knee deep"

O, Yas, it's sho'ly spring time
W'en frogs keep up sich noise,
A singin' to dar lone selves,
-A racket-jes' laik boys.

The other pretty season of the year is the late fall when the summer's 
heat has expended its force, and the atmosphere fills the human lungs with 
its healthful breaths of cool air. Then the oak leaves change their 
emerald hue, and lose their hold upon the parent tree, to drop at its feet 
and form mold to nourish the roots for future needs, while the Heavens are 
casting their weighty coats of glittering frosts upon the earth, as a 
warning to nature to prepare its slumbering couch for winter's visit. This 
is the second welcome season of the year. Then the industrious farmer and 
the lucky fisherman have already reaped their harvests and gathered them 
for protection against winter's icy hand, which is sure to search the 
lands where harvests bloomed, and the rivers where the waters romped and 
made merry with their finny visitors.

Winter soon makes a struggle to settle itself upon the earth, and sends 
its windy messengers from the North, with trumpets full of chilly air to 
blow upon the face of nature and thus force its eyes to close before the 
expected storms.

This wintry struggle is interrupted usually about the middle of November, 
when the weather again becomes warm, enabling the belated wayfarer to seek 
shelter, who, but for its aid would be "left out in the cold."

This change in the weather, with its hazy atmosphere, is a delightful 
season. It was named "Indian Summer" from the following circumstances: 
During the first settlements of the West, the pioneers to that region were 
continually harassed by the Indians. These people enjoyed no peace 
excepting in the severe winter weather when the Indians were unable to 
make their raids into the settlements. The onset of winter was therefore 
hailed as a relief from these annoyances by the settlers who throughout 
the spring and early part of the fall had been forced for their own safety 
to live in little uncomfortable forts. At the approach of winter, 
therefore, all the farmers excepting the owner of the fort, removed to 
their cabins on their farms. It sometimes happened, after the apparent 
onset of winter, that the weather became warm, the "smoky time" commenced, 
and lasted for a considerable number of days. This was Indian Summer, 
because it afforded the Indians another opportunity of visiting the 
settlements with their destructive warfare.

At morn, along the woodland stream,
A film of ice, brief as a dream,
Gleams in the sun,
And frost gems in the woods and grass,
Like trinkets wrought of polished glass,
Or myriad points of burnished brass
That shine as one.

A dreamy haze, half fog, half smoke,
Above the red tops of the oak
Hangs like a pall;
Incasing all the hill tops gray,
And valley stretching far away,
Where regal Indian Summer's sway
Transfigures all.

The winters are especially mild in the lower tidewater section; very 
seldom is ice formed upon its streams more than two or three inches thick. 
Snows are usually light, and last upon the earth but a few days after 
falling. Weather suitable for planting garden vegetables is often found in 
the middle of February, or the beginning of March. There is usually an 
abundant rainfall in the spring time, and the summer's drought ends about 
July.

II. LANDS OF TIDEWATER VIRGINIA.

The lands and waters of America were claimed by the Christian monarchs of 
Europe by right of discovery through their subjects. These Christian 
monarchs held many bloody disputes with one another over these doubtful 
titles by discovery. The colonists who settled Virginia had no title to 
the lands or waters other than what was given them in their charter from 
the King of England. Under this doubtful right, they landed and set up the 
emblem of Christianity-the Cross-and claimed the lands and waters for 
their king.

When America was first discovered, its lands were held in common by the 
several tribes or nations of the aborigines. Those tribes who were 
nomadic, moving from place to place in pursuit of game, laid no particular 
claim to any section, but looked upon all as free for their purposes. Such 
tribes made no fixed habitation upon the soil.

When the colonists reached Virginia, they found the Indians settled near 
the best fishing shores, and upon the most ferthe spots of land. The 
island upon which the colony first seated was part of the territory 
occupied by a tribe of Indians whose chief Paspiha welcomed the new 
comers, and shared with them his lands. This was the first undisputed, 
quiet title from an aboriginal inhabitant of the new world to the white 
man of the old world, and to Tidewater Virginia belongs this honor. The 
territory which the Spaniards already occupied at St. Augustine, Florida, 
and Santa Fe, New Mexico, was taken from the Indians without leave, or 
bargain, or price.

Until the massacre of 1622 by the Indians, the colony with some few 
exceptions, bargained for, and purchased from the several Indian kings, 
such lands as they occupied up to that date. The purchase price was often 
in trifling articles, such as grindstones, blue beads, copper kettles, and 
hatchets.

"Parahunt" near the falls of the James was the birthplace of Powhatan. 
This was purchased from him by Smith, and called "None Such:" The price 
was in part an English boy named Henry Spelman.

There was another white boy given to Powhatan, though not in exchange for 
lands. This boy's name was Thomas Savage; he came to Virginia in the ship 
John & Francis, in 1608, when Newport took with him to England a young 
Indian, named Namontuck, who undertook to count the English by cutting a 
notch in his stick, when he entered London. Savage was given as a hostage 
for the return of the Indian. Thomas Savage eventually settled in Accomac 
County at a place called Savages Neck.

In 1612, seventy acres of land were cleared near Farrars Island on James 
River, and laid off for corn. It was claimed that this tract of seventy 
acres could produce enough grain to supply the existing population of 
Virginia. This clearing was begun in September, 1611, with three hundred 
men.

Lands were purchased by Yeardley and other governors from the Indians in 
exchange for corn, after the colony began to produce more than it needed 
for its own uses.

In the treaty entered into by Sir George Yeardley and Opechanchanough, the 
English were granted permission to "reside and inhabit" at such places on 
the banks of certain rivers, which were not already occupied by the 
natives. After the massacre of 1622, the Indians were driven off such 
lands as the colony needed. They receded before the white man, further 
away from the rivers, into the dense forests.

The London Company offered to those who would go to Virginia "That for the 
present they shall have meate, drinke and clothing, with an horse, orchard 
and garden for the meanest (smallest) family, and possession of lands to 
them and their posterity, 100 acres for every mans person that bath a 
trade, or a body able to endure day laboure, as much for his wife, as much 
for his child, that are of yeares to do service to the colony, with 
further particular reward according to their particular merits and 
industry."

The above information was written to the Lord Mayor of London about 1609, 
as an advertisement of the scheme of colonization. Everyone who had 
adventured his own person, or had sent, or brought others over to 
Virginia, at his own expense, was entitled to one hundred acres of land, 
personal adventure for each.

These grants were called "Great Shares," or "Shares of Old Adventure." 
This was subsequently reduced to fifty acres which, upon being "peopled or 
settled upon" and cultivated, would entitle the holder to another fifty 
acres. There were two other methods of acquiring lands in Virginia. The 
one was upon merit. When any person had conferred a benefit, or done a 
service to the Company or Colony, a certain number of acres was bestowed 
upon him, not to exceed twenty "Great Shares," or two thousand acres. The 
other was called "Adventure of the Purse." Every person who paid twelve 
pounds ten shillings into the Company's Treasury, was given a title to one 
hundred acres of land anywhere in Virginia, that had not been before 
granted to or possessed by others.

Lands were granted by the Company for many purposes. In 1619, 3000 acres 
were laid off for support of the Governor, 12,000 acres for the Company, 
and 10,000 acres for the use of the University at Henrico. Each boy, and 
girl apprentice was entitled to land at maturity.

The settlement of Virginia beyond the Blue Ridge, war made principally 
from the grants of land upon condition of occupying, improving and 
defending them. Up until the date Virginia ceded her title to lands to the 
United States, she possessed more than four fold as much territory as any 
other of the thirteen colonies.

The first share of land granted from the Company according to the King's 
letters patent, which promised to divide the lands at the end of seven 
years, after 1609, was issued to Simon Codrington, on March 16, 1616, 
during the Quarter Court, Hilary Term.

In 1613, Sir Thomas Dale allotted to each man three acres. This was to 
those persons who had been brought to Virginia at the Company's expense. 
This was really no good title to the land, as the colonist to whom it was 
given had to work eleven months for the store (warehouse), and had but two 
barrels of corn from thence.

The settlement at Bermuda Hundreds (in 1613) enjoyed more favorable terms.

"For one month's labor for the company, which must neither be in seed time 
nor harvest, they were exempted from all further service, and for this 
exemption they only paid 21 barrels of corn as a yearly tribute to the 
store."

During the first two centuries succeeding the settlement at Jamestown, the 
navigable streams were necessarily the main highways of commerce and of 
intercourse between the several settlements, which at that period did not 
extend far inland. The settlements were extended along the coast line for 
hundreds of miles, and inland not more than one hundred miles from the sea 
shore, around the head waters of the streams. Beyond this was a wild 
wilderness of dense forest.

The colony of Virginia at first confined its settlements to the banks of 
the James River, thence extending along the affluent streams of the 
Chesapeake Bay, and the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers.

Surveys were required by laws as per act of the General Assembly, March 5, 
1623-4, following:

"13 Act. That every privatt planters devident shall be surveyed and laid 
out in several and the bounds recorded by the survey; yf there be any 
pettie differences betwixt neighbors about their devidents to be divided 
by the surveyor if of much importance to be referred to the governor and 
council. The surveyor to have 10 lbs of tobacco upon every hundred acres."

"Act LXIII. Every man shall enclose his ground with sufficient fences-
uppon his owne perill." Certain lands were allotted to Indians as per 
following:

"Act LI March 1657-8. No grants of land to issue to any Englishman until 
the Indians be first served with the proportion of 50 acres of land for 
each bowman, and the proportion for each particular towne to lie together, 
with libertie of all waste and unfenced land for hunting for the Indians."

According to the census of 1900, there were in that year three hundred and 
fifty-four Indians in Virginia, as follows 108 in Elizabeth City County, 
24 in Hanover County, 152 in King William County, 1 in New Dent County, 52 
in Norfolk County, 8 in Prince George County, 1 in Prince William County, 
6 in Washington County, 1 in city of Bristol, and 1 in city of Richmond. 
Probably all together they do not now own enough of Virginia's soil to 
give each one much more than enough for a garden patch.

The most extravagrant grant of Virginia's land was made by King Charles 
II, to Lords Arlington and Culpeper, two favorites of the King. The grant 
was dated February 25, in the year 16_3. It granted for the term of thirty-
one years "the entire territory, tract and dominion commonly called 
Virginia, with the territory of Accomac, with all rivers, waters and 
royalties whatsoever; are granted, as aforesaid, and bounded on the north, 
with the dominion of Maryland, on the east, with the sea, on the south 
with Carolina, with all the islands within the said bounds, and within 10 
leagues of the shore."

This was the cause of great dissatisfaction in the colony. The General 
Assembly passed an act for its repeal and agents were sent to England for 
that purpose. Finally after failing to sell this right to Virginia's 
agents, Lord Arlington conveyed his right to Lord Culpeper, who was 
Governor and Captain General of Virginia from May 10, 1680, to September 
10, 1683. Culpeper finally relinquished his right to the King in 1684, and 
Virginia was again under the protection and control of the Crown. This 
grant, together with that of the Northern Neck, heretofore mentioned, gave 
the early colonists an experience of monopolies and monopolists.

III. FARMING.

Prior to the Civil War, the people of Tidewater Virginia got their living 
by tilling the soil, by fishing and oystering, and from the products of 
the forests.

The larger farms were conducted on the "five field system," that is, one 
field in clover, two fields in wheat, and two in corn. The clover was for 
pasture and improvement of the soil. Except in localties contiguous to the 
cities, there was no attempt to produce garden vegetables for marketing.

The main agricultural products of the counties remote from railroad 
facilities were corn, wheat, oats, and in some counties tobacco, together 
with the several vegetables, only for home uses.

The first cultivated crop of the soil of Virginia offered to the old world 
was tobacco, the cultivation of which it is said was begun in 1612 by John 
Rolfe, who married Pocahontas. It soon became the staple crop to the 
exclusion of all others, so much so that laws were enacted limiting the 
number of plants to be cultivated by each hand, and the number of leaves 
to be gathered from each plant, the price at which it was to be sold, etc. 
To prevent a scarcity of corn, each master of a family was compelled to 
plant and sufficiently tend two acres a head, for each laboring person in 
his family, and as an encouragement to cultivate that article "every 
planter might sell it as dear as he could."

In 1617, Capt. Argall returned to Virginia from England as Deputy 
Governor; he found "the market place and other spare places in Jamestown 
planted in tobacco." Tobacco was then selling in London at ten shillings a 
pound, equivalent to $2.50.

Rev. Dr. Jas. Blair, the first president of William and Mary College, went 
to England in 1691 to secure funds to train young men for the ministry. He 
applied to Sir Edward Seymour, the treasury Commissioner, and in his 
argument for aid stated that "the people of Virginia had souls to save as 
well as the people of England." To this Seymour exclaimed: "Damn your 
souls! Grow tobacco!"

The opinions of three centuries ago concerning tobacco are interesting. 
Harlot wrote of tobacco as follows:

"There is an herbe called by the inhabitants 'Uppowoc.' In the West Indies 
it bath divers names according to the sevrall places and countries where 
it groweth and is used. The Spaniards call it Tobacco. The leaves thereof 
being dried and brought into powder; they use to take the fume or smoke 
thereof by sucking it through pipes made of elate into their stomachs and 
heads; from thence it purgeth all the pores and passages of the body by 
which means thereof not only preserveth the body from obstruction; but 
also if any be, so that they have not been of too long continuance, in 
short time breaketh them; whereby their bodies are notably possessed in 
health, and know not many grevious diseases wherewithall wee in England 
are oftentimes afflicted."

"We ourselves during the time we were there used to suck it after their 
manner, and also since our return, and have found many rare and wonderful 
experiments of the virtues thereof; of which the relation would require a 
volume of itself."

King James I had a different opinion of tobacco. In his treatise entitled: 
"A Counterblast to Tobacco," he said: "That its fumes resembles the 
horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless."

Stith in his history states that: "Tobacco, a stinking, nauseous, and 
unpalatable weed, is certainly an odd commodity to make the staple and 
riches of a country. It is neither of necessity nor ornament to human 
life; but the use of it depends upon humor and custom and may be looked 
upon as one of the znosi singular and extraordinary pieces of luxury that 
the wantonness of man bath yet invented or given rote."

There were two noted kinds, Oronoko-the stronger-and sweet scented-the 
milder. The latter was preferred by the ministers for the payment of their 
salaries.

Until comparatively recent years, very few of the farmers made attempt to 
cultivate hay crops. The long food for cattle and horses was formed from 
the corn crop. Corn fodder, composed of the corn stalk blades, with the 
tops of the stalks, and the shucks from the ear of corn, together with 
wheat and oat straw, formed the main foods of the farm animals.

When the ears of corn had passed their soft and milky stage, the leaves 
were stripped off the stalk, bound in bundles by a band of the same 
material, and hung upon the stalk to season, and afterwards were stacked. 
Later the tops of the stalks were cut off just above the hanging ears of 
corn, and bound together in bundles with the same material, and after a 
few days curing were stacked near the cuppen (cowpen), or barn yard, for 
winter's feeding. The fodder crop was seldom housed.

When the ears of corn were shucked in the field, the shucks were left 
hanging to the stalk for the cattle to feed upon.

Corn shucking was often made one of the festivals of enjoyment in which 
the negro was the main participant. In the fall, after the blades were 
pulled, the tops cut, and all was stacked, the corn in its shuck (husk) 
was pulled from the stalks, hauled to the barn yard, or "fodder pen," 
where it was "ricked up" in a high, long row. Notice was widely given by 
the servants of the appointed time set for "the shucking," which usually 
began after sundown, and was continued until late in the night.

Such occasions were largely attended, and as they usually came in squads 
of two or three to a dozen, across the fields, around the sandy roads, or 
through the paths in the dark, quiet, piney woods, the night was made 
joyous by their singing. During the days of slavery, and for several years 
thereafter, the negroes sang at their several tasks, or even when tramping 
through the woods, or in the roads.

The shucking feast was started by some one with a strong, musical voice 
who, when mounting the corn pile, reached down for an ear of corn, and 
tossed it up in the air, and started the song, as he walked from end to 
end of the pile. He was joined in the chorous by the crowd, and followed 
in rhythmic motions of their bodies in unison with his tune, and when the 
singing was inspiring and they "got hot," some daring shucker mounted the 
pile of corn also, and challenged the leader to a wrestle by starting some 
new song:

Dis co'n it are good,
An' dat yo' dem ail know, 
It's on dis yere plantation
Dis good co'n did grow.
Shuck co'n,
O, shuck co'n.

Yo' dem has money
An' I'll soon hav' some,
Cum len' me a dollah
An' let me go home.
Shuck co'n,
O, shuck co'n."

During their labors, they were served with something to drink by passing 
the bottle, jug, or decanter, and glass from hand to hand until all who 
desired the beverage were served. Few of them refused a "dram," but seldom 
indulged to excess.

It would daze an advocate of temperance to witness the look of 
satisfaction and contentment, which was indicated upon the faces, and the 
upturned eyes of the shuckers as they turned the last drop of a well 
filled goblet in±o their wideopen mouths, and grunted a satisfied a-a-h, 
and smacked their lips to get the last remaining flavor of "fire water" 
within safe precincts.

An abundant supper ended the feast, and after the assembly cut a few "hoe 
downs," in which the aged as well as the youths could "do their stunts," 
keeping time to lively patted or hummed tunes, they dispersed as they 
came, laughing and singing as they returned through the woods, the fields, 
and the roads.

The negro slave was neither a drunkard, nor a rowdy. Those inclined to 
either of these vices were kept in restraint by their owners.

The old-fashioned farming in Tidewater Virginia was not conducted with a 
view to improving the sail. Peruvian guano was extensively used as a 
fertilizer for the present crops, and was of little or no advantage to the 
future improvement of the soils. Much of the lands were not plowed deeper 
than three or four inches, so as to keep the offal and the fertilizer as 
near the top as possible.

Few of the farmers (allowed their lands for corn. They usually "lapped" 
two furrows, and when planting, they split the ground between them, and 
covered the corn with the foot. Side hills were "circled" and lapped to 
prevent washing by the rains. In circling hillsides, their several turns 
and windings were followed with a view to so arrange the furrows as to 
distribute the rainfalls as evenly as possible throughout the whole 
hillsides. Experienced hands were required for this work.

In the very early years of Virginia the grain crops, such as wheat and 
oats, were cut with a sickle, a curved knife, twelve or fifteen inches 
long, with serrated edges, and a wooden handle. It was used in one hand, 
while the other hand and arm, by a backward motion, gathered and grasped 
the grain into a bunch to be cut.

This was succeeded by the cradle, a thin steel blade slightly curved, 
between three and four feet in length. At the butt end-right hand-was a 
socket for the mead-along handleto which was attached two "nubs," one for 
each hand to grasp while rising the cradle. Fastened to the blade, and to 
the snead, were five or six fingers of wood above the blade, and running 
parallel with it, to aid in holding up the cut grain while the reaper 
carried his cradle across the swath and dropped the contents in a row.

A ripe harvest field with numerous cradlers was a pretty sight, and an 
inspiring evidence of prosperity. Its golden headed grain waved with 
slightest breeze like a sea subsiding after a storm. The stalwart 
harvesters followed each other with their cradles tightly grippled, and in 
rhythmic motion grappled the standing grain, and with a musical "swish" of 
the blade cropped the stalks from their hold upon mother earth, and laid 
them low for the "binders," who followed closely behind with rake in hand 
to gather the grain against their upturned shins, and hastily grasp from 
it a wisp to form the band and make a sheaf.

During the harvest, the farmer's kitchen was a scene o' busy bustle while 
meals were being prepared for the hearty harvesters. The odors from a 
Tidewater Virginia kitchen during those days savored of juicy country ham, 
fresh lamb, and the inevitable fried chicken. Added to these were ever 
kind of vegetables, together with a bountiful supply of green apple and 
huckleberry pies, and abundance of sweet milk, buttermilk, and "bonnie 
clabber."

A much sought for dish upon such occasions was "pot liquor," a product of 
the tines of great abundance. "Laws a mossy, Chile, whar has yo' bin all 
dis time widout knowin' w'at pot liquor is," said an old negro mammy- to 
an inquisitive ono who was a stranger to the customs of old time Virginia 
harvests.

"Ef yo' war to drink a gourd fall uv of Missus pot liquor yo' jes' hanker 
fo' me'. Dat yo' would!"

"Pot liquor" was not of as humble origin as its name implies. During 
occasions whisk demanded "big dinners," a whole ham, or possibly two, were 
placed in a big pot of water and suspended from the chimney crane over the 
fire. When the meat was partly cooked, cabbages were added, and later 
peeled potatoes were placed in the pot, and when these vegetables were 
partly cooled, corn meal dumplings were added, and after all mere 
sufficiently cooked 'Loge they were taken out and a handful of corn meal 
was sprinkled over the pot liquor and allowed to cook a few minutes. The 
pot liquor was thus seasoned with juicy, fat ham, scraps of the cabbages, 
potatoes, and corn meal dumplings', army thickened with corn meal. It 
needed no other seasoning, and was superior in flavor, and strength of 
nourish m cut to the many soups of ti=e present day cooking.

These scenes of thrift and abundance have passed from view, and are now 
succeeded by rattling harvesting machines, which know no pleasure other 
than the grinding noises which wear them away, and add to the harvest 
field old the chilling aspect of a machine shop, where before was laughter 
and joy, mingled with praise for him who "cut the widest swath."

Before the introduction of threshing machines, the crops of wheat and oats 
were threshed with flails, or trod out by cattle or horses.

The threshing by flail was done upon the barn floor, or upon a piece of 
hard, cleared ground. For purpose of treading the grain out by horses, or 
cattle, a hard, level spot of ground was fenced in, and after the grain 
was set up on the butt ends, the cattle or horses were driven around the 
enclosure at as rapid gait as possible; horses were sometimes ridden 
several abreast around the enclosure. This was a tedious and expensive 
method. The treading usually ended with a frolic for the neighbors who 
brought. their horses to assist, and between them and their teams they ate 
nearly the full value of their labors.

There was objection to threshing machines upon their first introduction, 
as it was believed they broke the wheat grains, and that there was danger 
of the machine flying to pieces. There was a nervous old gentleman well 
known in the Northern Neck, who was a good and extensive farmer, but 
strongly opposed to new methods, and especially to the introduction of 
farming machinery. He was finally prevailed upon to permit his wheat being 
threshed by a threshing machine, which was propelled by horses attached to 
arms of the machine, and moving in a circle. He critically eyed the 
machine, and its fixtures as they were being put together, and repeatedly 
cautioned his negro servants to "stand clear," and to keep their eyes and 
ears open, and not get entangled in the machine.

When the threshing began, the noise of the iron cog-wheels, the rapid 
scattering of the straw as it was thrown out by the machine, and the 
shouts of the drivers to the horses, created a greater confusing din of 
sounds than the old gentleman could endure. 'Pith wild gesticulations of 
his hands and his walking cane, he ordered his servants away from the 
machine, and disdaining the haste with which his crop was being disposed 
of, he shouted to the operator to stop, and take the machine out of his 
sight and hearing. "It took me twelve months to raise this crop of wheat," 
said he, "and I'll be damned if I'll let you or any other man thresh it 
out in three hours with an infernal yankee machine which is liable to fly 
to pieces at any moment and kill some of my best niggers."

The owners of numerous servants were also the owners of the best 
agricultural lands which usually were found near the rivers. The poorer 
classes were thus forced into the central parts of the respective 
peninsulas, where they cultivated "patches" rather than extensive fields. 
These patches of ground were the clearings made in the forests after the 
saw mill timber, and cord wood were taken therefrom.

IV. THE FORESTS.

In many of the peninsulas, the lands gradually rise as they advance from 
the river bottom sections until the central portions of the peninsula are 
reached. These elevated sections are generally composed of lighter soils 
than the river bottom lands. Much of these higher lands are "turned out" 
to the growing of timber for railroad ties, cord wood, and saw mill 
material. Such localties are usually designated as "the forest." Certain 
neighborhoods in the respective forests are humorously nick-named, such as 
"Quintin Oak" in Northumberland and Richmond counties, "Red Shin" in 
Westmoreland, "The Barrens" in King George, "Chinquapin" in Essex, "Sandy 
Lane" in Caroline, "Rabbit Branch" in Fairfax. The southern end of 
Gloucester is called "Guinea."

In some of the forest sections, there is more or less local dialect 
spoken. A "Down East" captain who was loading his vessel with ship timber 
in one of the interior streams of tidewater, went into one of the forest 
cross roads stores and asked, in the nasal tones peculiar to his section, 
for a bushel of "onyions."

The store keeper after trying to repeat the request of the Yankee captain, 
shook his head, and replied that he was sorry he could not accommodate 
him. After the departure of the captain, a native of that section who was 
present when the request for onions was made and who, in former days had 
made several trips to Cape Cod with sweet potatoes, told the store keeper: 
"The gentleman wanted 'ingyions,' I reckon."

"Ingyions, you say!" replied the merchant. "Ovah yonda in my con crib I've 
right smaht moan fohty bushel. Call the man back an' teach him how to 
talk!"

Notwithstanding these occasional "local breaks of forest dialect," there 
is probably no place in the 'United States where the English language is 
spoken with mare purity, and even amongst those whose claims is the higher 
education are limited.

The steamboat facilities prior to the Civil War were very meagre 
throughout some portions of Tidewater Virginia, in comparison with the 
present day, and because of the tedious journeys by sail vessels, or 
overland journeys on horseback to the surrounding cities, there were some 
persons resident there who seldom or ever visited a city, and therefore 
knew not by experience the utilities of city life, such as the use of gas 
for lighting purposes. Such people are now known as "gas blowers," a class 
now almost extinct.

"Old man B_____dine" as he was most familiarly known, where he resided, in 
"Chinquapin precinct," was one of those. For the first time in his long 
life, he was "obliged" to go to Richmond City, distant sixty odd miles 
from his home.

He nervously prepared for his new journey by giving his old horse an extra 
heavy feed the night previous to his start, and the next morning had his
"nigger chap" give the nag an extra rubbing down with corn cobs and a wisp 
of straw, to "slick the animal's cost.." To keep alive his master's spirit 
the negro filled to overflowing a black bottle with freshly distilled 
apple brandy, a product of Mr. B's apple orchard, and securely fastened to 
his master's saddle eight bundles of bright fodder, within which were 
stored six ears of corn, for the animal's noonday lunch, and the good wife 
packed up for him a "big snack" composed of chicken legs, ham, and pigs' 
feet, surrounded by two goodly chunks of Johnny Cake.

Thus well equipped, he made his start scanning each cross roads sign board 
carefully before entering into a new roan, and to ward off the 
lonesomeness of the journey, he ofttimes drew the cods of his bottle. 
After scanning the heavens repeatedly, he at last concluded it must be 
noontime, and turning into a clearing by the roadside, he dismounted, fed 
his horse, and began his snack, not more than half of which he had 
appetite for. After prudently pocketing the unfinished "snack," he bridled 
his horse and resumed his journey. About night fall he reached the city, 
tired but much buoyed up by the contents of his black bottle, all of which 
he had now imbibed. Upon inquiry he was directed to one of the best hotels 
in the city, which upon reaching he boldly rode across the sidewalk to its 
door, and called in his loudest tones to "send out a nigger to take my 
horse, give him twelve bundles of fodder and twelve ears of earn, far the 
critter's had a long journey." He was politely informed that there was no 
stable attached to the hotel. "Tell," said he, "They can beat yon in 
Tappahannock. There's two taverns there, and each of 'em keeps a shed for 
nothing else but horses." It was agreed to send his horse to a livery 
stable, and as he was already full of "snack" and apple brandy, he 
declined supper, and was shown to his room by a young negro servant, who 
before leaving, lighted the 'gas in the room. The old man was so fatigued 
by his journey that he at once lay dawn upon the bed for a nap before 
undressing, and as the gas light showed down in his eyes he endeavored to 
blow it oat from his posture in the bed, but failing to do so, he landed 
his old felt hat squarely upon the jet and out went the bright flame, but 
the gas nevertheless escaped into his room and through the transom to the 
corridor of the house where its odors were detected by the night watchman 
of the hotel while going his rounds throughout the corridors. Upon his 
locating the room from which the gas issued, the watchman loudly rapped 
for admittance. The old man nearly dazed by the escaping fumes, at last 
opened his door, and was informed that the gas was escaping in his room

"Don't you smell it," said the watchman. "Yes, I've been, smelling 
something rotten for some time," said he. "I believe its dead rats in the 
house. If you'd keep a cat or two here you wouldn't have such a smell." 
Upon being told of his mistake, and being shown how to close the gas jet, 
the old fellow impatiently exclaimed,, "Durn your gas lamp to the devil; 
take it out and send me a tallow candle such as I am used to."

It was in the forest sections that the "old fields" were most commonly 
found. An old field was a piece of land containing an indefinite number of 
acres which had been overworked and become too poor to longer till with 
profit. On such poor lands, one might see during the "fodder pulling" 
season, "a six foot man pulling fodder from a three foot corn stalk."

The first vegetation of the old field after being "turned out," was "broom 
sedge," which when in full growth mach resembles timothy grass. It is said 
that broom sedge was first brought to America in the hay for the British 
army during the Revolution. In the early spring, its dried growth which 
stood upon the ground was burned off to enable the new growth to appear 
for pasture. When first it appeared, after the burning, it was grazed by 
the cattle, though there is little nourishment in it. As soon as it 
attains a height of yr or eight inches, it becomes so hard, fibry and 
tough that steel: refuse to graze it.

In olden time, it was the delight of every good housekeeper in Tidewater 
Virginia to keep a clean fire hearth, and for this purpose "hearth brooms" 
were made of wisps of broom sedge tightly bound with yarn string.

In due time "scrub pines" appear on the old fields and as the fertility of 
the soil is increased by the forest offal, the scrub pines give way to 
more valuable timber growth, and then "the old field is lost in the woods" 
until the ringing echo of the woodman's age is heard felling some mighty 
giant of the forest as in the days of yore.

V. SCHOOLS.

It was in the forest section that the "old field schools" thrived. Before 
the Civil War, the educational facilities of Virginia were maintained at 
private expense. In the several counties there were private schools, many 
of which were called "academies," some of the prosperous families remote 
from these academies hired governesses. Those living in the "forest" who 
could not afford the expense of academy schools, or the hire of a 
governess, clubbed together in the several neighborhoods, built "log 
cabins for schools in old fields," hired teachers, with the agreement that 
they should "board round" with the several families whose children they 
taught the three Rs------"readin'"--"ritin'"--"rithmetic."

In order that the burden of caring for the new teacher might be evenly 
distributed, it was the custom to have a meeting of the pupils' parents at 
the school house, and there discuss the subject of baring the expense. 
Those who could knot spare the money, here allowed the opportunity of 
contributing their allotted share of the expense by way of providing 
lodging, and laundering for the teacher. At one of these meetings there 
were three old widows whose children needed schooling, but whose finances 
were at such a low ebb they were not able to pay their proportion in cash, 
but expressed their anxiety to have a teacher and share the burden as far 
as they were able.

When the question of providing the cash for salary was settled, the 
spokesman asked one of the widows what she could do for the teacher, to 
which she replied:

"I kin eat him a while if he's as easy as the last one."

"Well," said the next widow, "If sister Johnson is gwine to eat him, I'll 
agree to sleep him, 'out I can't wash him."

"Fell," said the third widow, "I'll do the best I kin to wash him, but 
I'll tell you now, I ain't much on biled shirts."

The log cabin schools were furnished with pine benches, formed of heavy 
beards or slabs without backs, and were supported from the floor by two 
legs or pine or oak saplings, inserted at either ends, through lush and a 
half, or two inch augur holes.

On the sunny side of the cabin, one of the logs was cut out for about two 
thirds of the length of the cabin, from about midway of the height between 
the eaves and the dirt floor, ,and the opening thus made was covered with 
a board hung upon leather hinges, so that it could be lowered to give 
protection against the storms, or raised to give light to the "writing 
scholars." This board was called the "flap board." The writing desk 
consisted of a board fastened along upon pegs immediately under the 
opening for the flap board, and there the writing scholars sat upon three 
legged stools. Quill pens, and unruled paper were in common use. The old 
time teacher was a tyrant to his scholars, and believed in tannin, the 
hides of the unruly ones with hickory switches.

Dunce caps, and "dance stools" were frequent instruments of torture to the 
dull scholars. A "dunce cap" made of paper formed in the shape of a soap, 
and upon which the word "dunce" was written. This was placed upon the head 
of the stupid, or negligent scholar, who failed to repeat the lesson. The 
"dunce stool" was small, and three legged. It was sometimes called the 
"creepy stool," because the scholars usually "crept," or were slow to 
mount it.

This sort of schooling, together with the "College of the Stump" made 
Virginia famous for its orators.

A "stump speaker" was one who could get upon a stump of a tree at a "new 
ground clearing," and give his hearers a "good talk."

The first public free school system of Virginia was provided for under the 
constitution of the State which eras ratified July 6, 1869. The 
legislature of 1870-71 made provisions for putting these schools into 
operation.

Notwithstanding the neglect of the Mate of Virginia to earlier maintain 
public schools, free to all, Tidewater Virginia has nevertheless the 
credit of establishing the first free school.

There was an order of the London Company dated November 18, 1618, for the 
planting of a university at Henrico, on James River. In that same year 
Rev. Patrick Copland, chaplain of the ship Royal James, while the ship was 
at Cape of Good Hope, raised from the gentlemen and mariners on this ship 
seventy pounds, eight shillings, and six pence towards building a free 
school in Virginia. Other subscriptions were made to this fund, in all 
about equal to $4,800.

A carpenter, Leonard Hudson, and five apprentices were sent from England 
to build the school in 1671. It wag located. in Charles City County at a 
place row known as City Point, in Prince George County. There were 
donations of laud for its support.

In 1634, Ben Sym devised two hundred acres of land on Pocosin River, in 
York County, "with the milk and increase of eight milch cows, for the 
maintenance of a learned honest man, to keep upon the land a free school 
for the education arid instruction of the children of the adjoining 
parishes of Elizabeth City and, Kicoutan (now Hampton), from St. Mary 
Mount downward to the Pocosin River." In 1675, Henry Peaseley established 
a free school in Gloucester County.

In 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson established a free school at Yorktown.

In 1693, the William and Mary College was erected in Williamsburg. This 
was the beginning of the schools for the higher education in Virginia.

Before the present free school system was adapted, the State provided a 
fund for the education of the indigent children. Arrangement was made in 
each county, usually with the teachers of the private schools therein, for 
this tuition, so that in nearly every instance, the "pay scholars," and 
the "poor scholars" were taught together, under the same roof, and by the 
same teacher, and "licked with the same switch."

The Virginian from the earliest days of settlement, after the first five 
years of "joint stock" arrangement, was so forced to depend upon his own 
resources for every item of convenience, comfort, enlightenment, or 
amusement, which he had a necessity, or desire for, that he looked upon 
the plan for the education of his children to be paid for out. of a public 
fund, as degrading dependence. His willingness to provide a fund for 
others to be educated upon that plan was evidenced by the fact that such a 
fund was taxed for and provided from the revenues of the State, but he who 
was able to provide otherwise wanted none of this. In fact, the position 
of the well to do Virginian was such that he had everything else under his 
own individual central, from the raising of his food, and materials for 
his clothing, to that of his own grist mill to grind his wheat and his 
corn, and the tan yard for his leather, even to the loom that wove his 
garments. All he condescended to ask for outside of these conveniences 
were a few scraps of iron to fashion the tools for his servants. He owned 
the lands, and the farmer who worked them, also the tanner, the shoemaker, 
the weaver, the blacksmith, the mason, the carpenter, the painter, the 
wood chopper, the sawyer, the fisherman, the oysterman, the hunter, and a 
few more servants whose sole duty was to "kepp de flies off Massa while he 
dozed, an' fin' Missus specks fo' huh," as evidenced by the following 
colloquy, which took place when two young negroes sought service away from 
their former master and mistress immediately after the Civil War. The lady 
to whom they applied for work asked: "Can you cook?"

"No'm, we ain't nevah been cook none; Polly cooked:"

"Can you wash?" said the lady.

"No'm we aint bon wash none neither, Aunt Sally she wash!"

"Can you clean house then?" was asked.

"No'm, bast we nevah been cleanin' none:'

The lady asked question after question with like negative results is ; 
finally she asked

"What have you been accustomed to do?"

"Sukey, heah, she keep flies off Marster, an' I hunt fo' of Missies specks"

Under such conditions, the Tidewater Virginian did not care whether school 
kept or not. He was a veritable Robinson Crusoe in so far that he was 
"monarch of all he surveyed."

VI. TIDEWATER FISHERIES.

Nearly all the waters of Virginia, salt and fresh, are more or less 
inhabited by fish, but the great "schools" of fish, which sometimes are 
found assembled together in millions, are found in salt waters, or if 
found in fresh waters are there only to deposit their eggs. If not. 
interrupted, many of them find their way to the very falls of a stream, 
where the rough and difficult ascent forbids their further journey. They 
were so plentiful in the days when Capt. John Smith made his voyage of 
discovery up the Potomac to "the falls," that his crew dipped them from 
the river in frying pans.

Since the Civil War, the fishes of the sea have had to contend also with 
new industrial methods as did the oyster and so scarce have they become in 
the vicinity in which Smith's crew so readily dipped them up with frying 
pans that one who now should depend upon such method of obtaining a, 
supply of fish would starve to death in the attempt.

There are now hundreds of men mounted upon the masts of steam and sail 
vessels, sailing along the Atlantic Coast, and within the Chesapeake Bay, 
all of whom have sharp focused spy glasses to their eyes, on the "look 
out" for the finny visitors, which float in such compact "schools" that 
the weight of a single "school" would burst through a seine such as would 
tag the efforts of a strong man to break a single strand of. Such 
"schools" are not allowed to play the truant, and gambol very far when 
once they are sighted. They seldom have the chance to reach the falls of 
any river before they are captured.

To prevent entire extermination of this fond commodity the United States 
maintains places where fishes of several varieties are artificially 
hatched and delivered into the waters for their supply.

If the fishes of the sea, which require fresh waters wherein to deposit 
their spawn, are deprved of this privilege their race must become extinct. 
Wisdom upon the part of man should permit of this privilege to such an 
extent as to prevent this calamity.

Before the Civil War there were large "shore fisheries" upon the great 
rivers to supply the markets Of cities with edible fish. Shad and herring 
in the season were abundant in all the waters, as there were then few 
fishermen in comparison with the present day, and fewer steamers traveling 
those waters to frighten the fish. With the exception of a seine full now 
and then, seldom were the fish used as fertilizer upon the lands, and 
those so used were cast upon the land in their raw state, and plowed under 

A "drag seine" was commonly in use for herring and shad. The seine was 
spread out to cover as much space as possible and then dragged ashore. 
Some of the larger shore fisheries employed horse power to "wind" the 
seine ashore. The Chesapeake Bay begins at the Capes,-Charles and Henry-
with a mouth twelve miles wide, through which the great Atlantic Ocean 
forces its clear waters, without noise or struggle, daring each flood 
tide. This usually quiet, calm entrance is inciting to the fishes of the 
sea, and they pour through it like school children on a picnic ground, 
whole "schools" at a time. Here in all directions, when once inside, they 
find inviting streams in quiet nooks, to shed their spawn, to gambol, 
feed, and nibble at a hoof, or share the fate of their kind, by being 
"gills" or led into a "pound," or surrounded by a "seine" on some 
unsuspecting fishing shore, or "pursed" in a net by some roving fishing 
boat's crew. The many methods of capturing fish are too numerous to 
mention here, but the most extensive ways of fishing are by means of 
stationary nets, floating seines, and purse nets. Stationary nets are 
filed by driving poles in the bottom of a stream, usually in the form of a 
square pen, sown as a "pound," to which a net is placed all around and on 
the bottom, and fastened by means of rings attached to the poles. An open, 
wide, converging mouth of net leads into the center of the pen to a "false 
pound," and thence into the "main pound," where it narrows to a confusing 
point for the fish, when once they get inside it. There are "wings" 
attached to each end of the pound. The win s are formed by driving pales 
in the bottom of the stream, in a long, straight row from the line of the 
pound, and covered with netting, to obstruct the passage of the fish, and 
lead them along to the mouth of the pound as they endeavor to find a 
passage-way up the stream. The nets are usually fished each day, by men 
who attend in small boats, or canoes, and haul up the nets from the 
bottom, so that the fish are within reach of the fisherman's scoop-net, 
and thus they are "scooped in," regardless of their struggles to free 
themselves from the wily fishermen.

There are also floating nets, known as "gill nets," which are set in a 
stream and kept afloat by corks. The fish in their migrations through the 
waters, "strike" these nets, and when once they run their heads through 
the "meshes" of the net, and extend their gills, they become fastened by 
the twine of the mesh passing under, or behind the gill.

The greater fisheries are carried on by "seine fishing" on shores, and by 
"purse net fishing" from vessels. A "fishing shore" is usually selected 
because of some natural advantage, either from the nature of the river 
bottom or of some configuration of the shore limits which would induce the 
fish to "school" at that point. The seine is carried out in boats and 
spread as far as possible and then gradually hauled in to the shore, the 
fishermen wading out to aid in "holding it down" until the ends are 
brought to land, where the whole seine is emptied on the shore. This 
fishing is usually during the spawning season, for shad and herring. In 
fact the best fishing season for all species of fish is during the 
spawning.

"Purse net" fishing is conducted on a more extensive and costly plan than 
"shore fishing," and in connection with a factory on the land, to boil the 
fish, and extract the oil therefrom, and to prepare the "scrap"-the bodies 
of the fish, for fertilizer for agricultural purposes. In some instances, 
the cooking of the fish is done on steamers which follow the vessels. This 
industry is particularly a source of great wealth to those engaged in it. 
The fish caught for this purpose are known as "ale wives," a species not 
commonly used as human food, though related to bath herring and shad, an d 
resembling the latter in form and color. It is said they arc mainly the 
prey for other fishes. "Big fish eat little fish, and little fish eat 
lesser ones." The ale wives-sometimes called menhaden-are very prolific, 
shedding between sixty thousand to one hundred thousand eggs during a 
season.

Ale wive fishing is one of the industries introduced into Tidewater 
Virginia since the Civil War. There are about fourteen steamers in one 
small river alone-Great Wicomico-Northumberland County-engaged in this 
industry. The average tonnage of the vessels engaged is about one hundred 
tons each. The purse nets are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred 
fathoms-1080 feet to 1200 feet-in length. The "purse nets" are used to 
surround the "schools" of fish. This is done by dividing the net equally 
between two row boats (purse boats) which are carried for that purpose, 
and when the fish are sighted by the "lookout," who is stationed aloft 
with a spy-glass, each boat is then manned with its crew, who row the 
boats parallel to each other until within "striking" distance of the 
"school," then they separate and row in a circle to meet each other and 
surround the fish, each boat "paying out" their part of the net as they 
advance until they complete the circle, after which the ends of the net 
are fastened together, and a "Tom"-a ball of weighty lead-is thrown 
overboard to form a fulcrum with which to "purse" the net at its bottom. 
This is done by means of a line attached to a ring in the "Tom," and by 
aid of other ropes passed through rings attached to the net on bottom and 
sides. Through this means, the bottom of the net, as well as the ends, are 
brought closely together "pursed"-to form a solid bag, enclosing the fish.

An important helper in this fishing, is the man known as the "striker" or 
"driver." When a school of fish is sighted, the "striker" goes off in his 
own life boat, and by rowing around the "school," he keeps them huddled 
until the "net men" can encircle them. During heavy seas, when the net 
boats are tossed up and down upon the waves, and lose sight of the 
"schools," the "striker" holds aloft his oar as a guide to direct them 
towards the fish.

It is said that the oil from the "ale wive" has a market value as whale 
oil, olive oil, nests foot oil, and cod liver oil, and is found enclosed 
in diminutive bottles, with suggestive labels, which proclaim its "sure 
cure" for many ills which annoy mankind.

The average catch at one haul is said to be between 300,000 and 400,000 
fish. The average catch for one steamer in a season's fishing is from 
eight million to ten million, and the best about fifteen million fish. The 
fish y field an average of five or site gallons of oil to the thousand. 
The best average is from twelve to fourteen gallons to the thousand fish. 
It takes an average of shout 1300 fish to make a ton of dry scrap 
fertilizer. This is the fisherman's loch in Tidewater Virginia. The ale 
wive fishery is conducted nn the shores of the Atlantic Ocean as well as 
in the inland waters of Virginia.

The methods of fishing by the Indians differed but little from those of 
the whites of the present day.

Capt. John Smith relates: "Their fishing is much in Boats. These they make 
of one tree by burning and scratching away the coales with stones and 
shels, till they have made it on the form of a Trough. Some of them are an 
clue (ell) deep, and fortie or fiftie foote in length, and some will bears 
40 men, but the west ordinary are smaller, and will bear 19, 20, or 30, 
according to their bignesse. Instead of Oares they use Paddles and 
stickes, with which they will row faster than our Barges.

"Betwixt their hands and thighes, their women use to spin, the barkes of 
trees, Deere sinewes, or a kinde of grasse tic[missing] call Pemmenaw, of 
these they make a thread very even and readily. This thread serveth for 
many uses. As about their housing, apparell, as also they make nets for 
fishing. They make also with it lines for angles. Their hookes are ether 
bone grated as they nosh their arrowes in the forme of crooked prone or 
fish hooke, or of the splinter of a bone tyed to the clift of a little 
sticke, and with tire end of the line the tie on the bate. They use also 
long arrowes tyed to a line, wherewith they shoote at fish in the rivers. 
But they of Accawmake use staves like unto javelins headed with bone."

VII. OYSTERS.

Ousters form a staple product of the salt waters of Tidewater Virginia. 
They will not live in continuously fresh waters, and in extremely, salt 
waters, they are usually poor.

In many of the extremely salt water streams upon the Eastern Shore 
peninsula of Virginia, the oystermen provide "bogies" or bins, upon the 
shores for "drinking" the oysters before shipment to market. For this 
purpose, the oysters are placed in these boxes and fresh waters from wells 
or cisterns are mingled with the salt waters therein. By this treatment, 
the oysters soon become plump and solid as they would if grown in medium 
salt waters, where they attain their greatest perfection.

The oyster hearing territory of Virginia, and lower Maryland, including 
lower Chesapeake Rae, is the best in the United Mates for growing finely 
flavored, healthy oysters, free from contamination of sewerage, and within 
reach of enough pure, fresh waters to create good growth. From Alexandria, 
Virginia, down the full length of the Potomac River, to its mouth at 
Smith's point, and thence continued down the broad Chesapeake Bay to 
Norfolk, Virginia, a total distance of about two hundred miles, there is 
not a single city or town within the whole length. of territory, and 
therefore no sewerage to contaminate these pure, clean waters.

Oysters are very prolific and it is estimated by authority that a good 
sized oyster will produce several. millions of spawn-eggs during the 
season. A very large percentage of spawn fails to mature because of 
absence of proper fertilisation, or dies before it "catches" in a suitable 
place. If the locality in which the shaven settles is suitable, then in 
about four or five years' growth from the time of "catch" they will mature 
to oysters fit for market.

Shifting, sandy bottoms, or very soft, oozy bottoms, are net suited to the 
"catch" of spawn, or the growth of the oyster. Spawn requires a clean, 
hard, stationary substance to adhere to. To aid in "catching spawn," fresh 
oyster shells are scattered over the oyster grounds during the spawning 
season, which usually begins in this section about the first, to the 
middle of April, and ends about September. Spawn cannon catch upon shells 
or other substances which have become coated with slime. As many as five 
to ten spawn may settle upon, and mature upon one empty shell.

There are about 1,488,000 acres of water surface in the State of Virginia, 
or within its control, including that part of Chesapeake Bay from Cape 
Charles and Henry to Smith's Point, at the mouth of Potomac River, and 
thence across said bay to Pocomoke River, the boundary of Accomac County 
on the water's side.

The far greater part of Virginia's water surface is situated in the 
tidewater section, and the larger part of these tidewaters were oyster 
bearing territory when Virginia was [first?] settled. The rapid depleting 
of these immense oyster beds did not begin until after the Civil War, when 
the canning of oysters was first introduced. Prior to that period neatly 
[missing word] the streams in that section through which the salt waters 
ebbed and flowed, were most bountifully supplied with this article of 
food, and in the lowermost peninsulas clams were also abundant. The waters 
then were open to the public, excepting coves within the survey of private 
lands.

Since the Civil War, the State maintains a supervision over the oyster 
territory by means of a "Board of Survey," and by "Inspectors," who issue 
licenses upon payment of certain fees for "catching" by tongs, dredges or 
otherwise; they also allot bottoms to private individuals, upon certain 
conditions, to plant upon, for which an annual rental per acre is exacted 
by the State.

Other portions of the oyster bearing bottoms, known as "Natural Oyster 
Rock" are open to the public under certain restrictions of law to catch 
oysters from, but not for planting purposes.

A natural oyster rock is seldom a rock. It is but a term applied to places 
where oysters are found in abundance, or in clusters which were produced 
from the spawn settling thereon, and growing naturally, without being 
transplanted. No part of the Potomac River is subject to individual 
allotment by either of the two States, Virginia and Maryland. Though 
Maryland claims the waters of this river to low water mark upon the 
Virginia shores, nevertheless they are open to the inhabitants of both 
States for oystering only, and not for individual planting bottoms, 
subject also to certain conditions made by each State separately for their 
respective inhabitants.

Dredging, and tonging are carried on in these waters during certain 
specified months of the year. Wherever a bed of oysters is found, the 
dredge boats flock to, and usually scrape its bottom free of all 
marketable stock before quitting its territory. It is asserted by some 
authorities that dredging the oyster bottoms has a beneficial effect 
through scattering them over a wider area, and by others it is asserted 
that the destruction of young oysters by the dredge is very great.

As the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay are the main spawning grounds for 
all their tributaries within both States, Maryland and Virginia, the 
importance of keeping these waters well stocked with adult oysters should 
claim the attention of the planters who are engaged in this industry. It 
would add to the increase of the oysters, if, by agreement by both States, 
certain defined, limited territory of the Potomac River and the Chesapeake 
Bay were closed to dredging during alternate years.

The increased shipments of this product from Virginia during recent years 
have largely diminished the supply.

Before the recent enactment of laws prescribing the size of oysters to be 
taken from the waters, they were shipped without "culling," both for 
planting purposes in other States, and. for consumption in the cities. 
They were culled only after reaching the cities, and those too small for 
human consumption were dumped upon the shell piles to die, and became 
waste instead of being returned to their natural beds.

There has been a woful waste in all of nature's products in America since 
its first settlement, and Virginia has given its share to form this waste. 
The wild fowl were so plentiful in that section in comparatively recent 
years, that they were readily captured by hundreds at a time in single 
pens, stir rounded by nets, to which they were decoyed by strewing corn 
over the bottoms of the waters leading thereto, or were killed by dozens 
at a single shot, with big bow guns while in flocks upon the feeding 
grounds. This great abundance was then disposed of with little profit to 
the oysterman or hunter.

The oyster feeds during flood tide only. This is demonstrated by catching 
oysters upon the teeth of the oyster tongs while their shells are open 
during flood tide, and not during tide, except when the oyster is weak and 
not able to close its shell.

It is asserted that they throw off their spawn at the commencement of the 
flood tide. This inflow of the tide forces the spawn up stream from the 
spawning bed. If this assertion be correct, it would be useful for 
planters to place their breeding oysters at the months of the streams so 
as to [missing] the incoming tide, which would in the event carry and 
tribute the spawn throughout their entire waters.

There are enemies of the oyster besides man, the most destructive of which 
is the "Starfish," which an authority as being able to surround the young 
oyster and gradually breaking its tender shell at the mouth, to insert its 
stomach and absorb the oyster.

There is a difference of oysters upon this subject. An old oysterman tells 
how the starfish kills the oyster:

"Crawlin' 'round the bottom of the river the star accidentally gets afoul 
of a bed of oysters. He don't know at first mebbe what they are. Pokin' 
'round 'mongst 'em he accidentally, as it were, gets the end of one of his 
arms into an open shell an' the oyster, of course, shets down on him like 
a thousan' o' bricks. Now sir, the star can't get away even if he's sorry 
that he got in a hole, but the oyster can't live but a little while with 
its shell open, an' after a few hours he's dead. Then lie lets up an' the 
star ;who's bin waitin' all this time for his lunch makes a meal offen him 
right there, takes him on the half shell in his own gravy as it were."

The bottoms of Virginia waters are not conducive to the growth of the 
starfish, and it is therefore not a great pest there. Oysters are "caught" 
from the waters by dredges, scrapers, tongs, and nippers. Sail boats use 
dredges, or scrapers. Men in small boats, such as canoes, or skiffs use 
tongs, or nippers. Dredges and scrapers are permitted only in the 
Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River. Tongs are used where oysters are 
comparatively plentiful, and nippers only where they lie singly and far 
apart from each other. The tongs have a capacity of a peck or more. But 
one oyster can be taken at a time with nippers. Nippered oysters are 
generally of a superior grade, large and fat, and can be caught only in 
clear, calm, and shallow waters where the oysterman can see the bottom as 
lie shoves his boat along the waters in search.

There are many classes of boats engaged in the oyster industry in 
Virginia, amongst which are schooners, sloops, pungeys, bugeyes, 
skipjacks, flattys, brogans, and canoes. The first two named vessels are 
common to all the navigable streams of this country. The last six are 
generally local to the oyster and fishing sections. They are distinguished 
by the shape and construction of their hulls, or the cut of their sails. 
The schooner and sloop have "waists," the last six named have "logs," or 
"washboards." The bugeye is a flat bottom, center-board schooner of three 
to fifteen tons, built of heavy timber without a frame, but decked over 
without a waist. The "waist" consists of a boarded railing extending over 
the outward edge of the deck. A "log" is a square beam of wood but a few 
inches in height and width, and like the waist extends around the whole 
deck. A "washboard" forms a deck but a few inches wide around the upper 
edges of the boat. It is supported to the sides by suitable small knees 
underneath.

Surely if Uncle Sam has urgent need for good sailors, he should send his 
naval recruiting officers to Tidewater Virginia. A large number of the 
people inhabiting the tidewater counties, from earliest youth to old age, 
have had experience with boats of all sizes and shapes, from the "dugout" 
to the "coasting schooner" while engaged in oystering, fishing, or 
freighting. Dredging oysters in a fleet of sail boats on a "natural oyster 
rock" is a good school for teaching one how to maneuver a vessel in a 
close place. 

VIII. FOOD PRODUCTS OF TIDEWATER VIRGINIA

No section of the United States of similar extent produces a greater 
variety of food for human consumption than can be found in Tidewater 
Virginia. Excepting the citric fruits, all the several classes of fruits, 
and vegetables which are grow n in any other part of north America, can 
be, and are grown in some part or other of this territory. The soil is 
light, and can be cultivated with one horse power, except upon the clay 
bottom lands, adjacent to the rivers. The winters are mild and. usually 
short, and the warmth of the Gulf stream is manifested in the early spring 
vegetation there.

Some of the "truck farms" almost within sight of Jamestown ship annually 
each thousands of barrels of early potatoes-sweet and Irish-and other 
vegetables to the Eastern and Western markets, thereby supplying hundreds 
of thousands of the inhabitants of the United States with abundance of 
food from the same lands where the early colonists, though but few in 
number, starved to death from need of such products.

The Virginia sweet potatoes are famous for their good flavor. These 
"sweets" are always selected by the negro to dish with his fattened 
"possum and gravy." The reader who objects to an excessive accumulation of 
saliva about his lips, must refrain from witnessing a Tidewater Virginia 
negro "soppin' sweet 'tater in possum gravy."

In parts of this section, there is grown a cantaloupe which competes 
successfully with the "Rocky ford" cantaloupe of Colorado. The Eastern 
shore of Virginia, and the Norfolk Peninsula are justly famous for "truck 
farming." There are several hundreds of acres in Lancaster County 
cultivated by the noted "Landreth firm" of seed growers, which produce 
abundantly the several varieties of garden seeds to supply their trade 
throughout the country.

If all the lands of Tidewater Virginia were devoted to fruit and "truck 
farming," to which they are best adapted, enough could be raised there to 
feed the nation. Speedy transportation, connecting the whole section with 
the outside markets, is in urgent need. As it is now, about one-half of 
the lands are "turned out" to woods, or in "old fields."

Tidewater Virginia is famous for fried chicken. The old black mammies of 
Virginia can prepare fried chicken to "the Queen's taste."

Thos. Hariot, one of the gentleman colonists to go to Roanoke Island, 
wrote:

"Pagatown, a kind of graine so called by the inhabitants; the same in the 
Nest Indies is called Mayze; Englishmen call it Guiney wheate or Turkie 
wheate."

"Wee made of the same in the countrey some mault whereof was brued as good 
ale as was to be desired"

Corn meal is a very essential food product in Virginia, and when ground in 
a country water power grist mill, it is far superior to the meal ground by 
the heavy and rapid power steam mill. The latter mill grinds the meal too 
fine, and so rapidly as to heat it unduly, and thereby make it stiff and 
doughy.

From corn meal are made many delicious breads, such as corn pope, egg 
bread, cracklin bread, ash cake, Johnny (Journey) cake, and hoe cake.

Corn pope consists of corn meal with water sufficient to moisten, and salt 
sufficient to season it. Egg bread, or as it is sometimes called, batter 
bread, consists of corn meal, eggs, sweet and sour milk, soda and salt. 
Cracklin bread was composed of corn meal and cracklins, mixed with salt 
and water, and rolled in an oval shaped cake. "Cracklins" are the parts 
left from the boilings of meat scraps while making lard, and when 
separated from the lard by straining in a colander are dry and crisp.

These several breads were baked in a "Bread Oven," a thick cast iron, 
circular vessel, with straight, upright sides, upon which were two loop 
handles attached, to which pot hooks were inserted when lifted or carried. 
It sat upon three legs, and was covered with a heavy cast iron lid, upon 
top of which was also a loop handle to insert an iron "lifter." For 
purposes of cooking, live coals of wood, and hot ashes were placed beneath 
the oven and upon the lid, thus enabling the contents to be cooked top, 
and bottom, at one and the same time. All implements for cookery in the 
old fashioned fire places had three legs, to lift them above the ashes and 
coals.

Ash cake is made with corn meal, salt and water, and rolled its a ball, 
covered with cabbage leaves and placed in hot ashes and small live coals 
to bake.

Johnny (Journey) cake, and hoe cake were of the same composition as the 
ash cake. The Johnny cake was placed upon an oak board and set up against 
live coals, and hard baked, for "keeping on a journey," when taverns were 
few and far between.

The hoe cake was placed upon the blade of the cornfield, or tobacco 
billing hoe, with the shank of the hoe down, and set before the live 
coals. This was the negro bachelor's usual mode of cooking bread.

All breads were mixed in homemade wooden bread trays, which were gouged 
out of blocks of gum, or poplar woods.

Maize or Indian corn is indigenous to America, and is comparatively but 
little used in Europe even at this date.

The colonists got their first taste of Indian corn bread at the Indian 
village of Kecoughtan-now Hampton-on April 30, 1607, "where they were 
regaled by the Indians with corn bread, tobacco and a dance."

Captain Smith described the Indian mode of cooking corn bread as follows:

"Their come they rest in the care green, and bruising it in a mortar of 
wood with a Polt, lappe it in rowIes in leaves of their come, and so boyle 
it for a daintie. They also reserve that come late planted that will not 
ripe, by resting it in hot ashes. Their old come they first steep a night 
in hot water, in the morning pounding it in a mortar. They use a small 
basket for their temmes, then pound again the great and so separating by 
dashing their hand in the basket, recause the flower in a platter made of 
wood scraped to that forme with burning and shells. Tempering this flower 
with water, they make it either in cakes covering them with ashes till 
they bee baked, and then washing them in faire water they drie presently 
with their own heat; or else boyle them in water eating their broth with 
the bread which they call Ponap."

Hog and hominy are associate dishes of food in Tidewater Virginia during 
the late fall. and winter months. While fresh meats were abundant, it was 
usually a rainy day job to "beat hominy." The beating was done in a 
"hominy mortar," a gum log about three and a half feet in height, the top 
of which was dug out with an adze, and the inside surface then slightly 
charred with fire, and afterwards cleanly and smoothly scraped. Hard, 
flinty grains of corn were selected, and when they were placed within the 
mortar, a small quantity of boiling water was poured over them, and the 
mortar covered with a cloth for a short period to permit of the corn being 
steamed, and thereby softening and loosening the hush of the grain which 
soon thereafter sheds during the beating.

The beating of hominy was done by pounding down upon the mass of corn with 
a wooden pestle of well seasoned gum wood. After beating sufficiently, the 
hominy was placed in a wooden tray and thrown up in the air, the falling 
motion of the grain back into the tray blew the "hulls" out and thus 
separated the two.

Hominy prepared in this manner is a delicious food, far superior to that 
ground in a mill. The grains come out of the operation nearly whole, and 
cleansed of all their hulls.

The hog is not indigenous to America, but is the issue of stock brought 
from England. After the settlements were well extended throughout 
tidewater many of these animals escaped from the settlers into the 
forests, and finally became so wild as to prevent capture otherwise than 
by shooting them. Their increase, which was rapid, was deemed a fortunate 
circumstance as wild game was rapidly disappearing farther beyond reach. 
Knowing the experience which the first settlers their forefathers-had with 
famine and the distress caused by starvation, the general assembly for 
protection against such calamity forbade by law the killing of wild hogs. 
except as a reward for killing wolves, wherein "a hog may be shot for 
every wolf killed." Severe punishments were provided for violations of 
this law.

Up to the period of the passage of the "no fence law," there was in every 
county a large amount of land known as "in the commons," because it was 
without either fence or tillage. Such lands were used as common pasturage 
by the public for their cattle and hogs, without protest by the individual 
owners of these lands.

Before hogs were "turned out in the commons" they were marked with a 
"slit" or a "crop" of the ears so as to identify them to their owners.

His left ear's cropp'd
His right ear's slit,
When you see my hog,
You may know it's it.

Hogs when left in the commons for a season become quite shy, and are 
difficult to approach. When needed for penning and fattening they are 
"tolled" first by scattering corn within their range until they become 
accustomed to the feeding. A pen of poles is then built in the vicinity 
with a polegate way, and the gate is so adjusted as to fall when they 
enter. Corn is then scattered around, and into the pen at a certain hour 
of the day, and thus continued for several days, or until the animals 
become accustomed to enter the pen. At a proper time, the gate is adjusted 
to fall into place and enclose them.

For a short while after the hog is "turned out in the commons" he is given 
small feeds of corn. By the time his allowance is shortened to a 
standstill, the hog has learned that his owner cannot longer be depended 
upon for a further supply of food, and that he must thereafter "root hog 
or die." From that day on the animal leads a strenuous life by keeping his 
nose to the ground in search of wild berries, acorns, chinquopins, and 
edible roots, and in due time he develops upon his uncertain rations into 
a bundle of bones, muscle, hide and bristles. As he is too lean to shoot, 
can outrun a negro, or fight a dog to a finish, he is then classed a "Pine 
Rooter," and is safe and undisturbed until his owner "tolls" him. When 
such a hog is alarmed he has the muscular power to raise the bristles upon 
his back bone, and can keep them in that position at his will. When the 
"pine rooter" has his bristles elevated on his back to "a fine point" he 
is then a "Razor Back," because his back appears to be as sharp as a razor.

The main meat products of a Tidewater Virginia farmer are derived from the 
hog, and the finest flavored and most healthy meats are produced from 
"Pine Rooters" and "Razor Backs." When such hogs are penned and given 
abundance of corn they fatten rapidly into the solid and tender meat which 
has made an unsurpassed reputation for itself.

The hams, shoulders, and middlings are cured with dry salt, well rubbed in 
with a slight admixture of salt petre.

Meats cured in this manner have not the flabby, and watery condition which 
are such prominent features of the slaughter house products cured in brine.

After the meats are sufficiently cured in salt, they are rubbed with black 
pepper, brown sugar, or molasses, and hickory wood ashes, and smoked with 
hickory chips, or corn cobs. The smoking is done leisurely so that the 
curing and smoking may penetrate the whole piece. Meats prepared in this 
manner will keep sound and wholesome for almost indefinite time.

There are many other products of the hog, among which are the "country 
sausage." This is made from "scraps of parings" when shaping hams, 
shoulders, and middlings, and is composed of fat and lean meats well 
blended together, and when properly seasoned with salt, pepper, and sage 
makes a deliciously appetizing and healthy food.

Unlike the slaughter house product of skin, gristle, muscle, and lean 
"scraps," the country sausage of Tidewater Virginia does not require an 
addition of lard to fry it, nor a sharp tooth to masticate it.

Chittlins (Chitterlings) are composed of the entrails of the hog, well 
cleansed in repeated solutions of salt and water for several days. They 
are then thoroughly boiled in clear water, and afterwards laid down in 
stone jars and covered with apple vinegar.

When eaten, they were usually fried and served hot with batter bread. 
Owing to its more or less strong odors, this dish is not relished by some 
persons.

A Yankee traveler from "Down East" stopped at a Tidewater Virginia tavern 
for breakfast, and was handed a dish of hot, fried chittlins which he 
slightingly refused, and when asked what else he wished, called for "cod 
fish balls."

"Stranger," said the landlord, "I've heard of such eatables up in town, 
but we don't have 'em down yere kase we couldn't bear the smell of 'em."

There are dishes of food which the Tidewater Virginian would refuse even 
at the peril of starvation, among them are cod fish, sour krout, limberger 
cheese, baked beans, or apple pie for breakfast.

There may be times of scarcity in some of the food commodities in 
Tidewater Virginia, but never a period of starvation since the first few 
colonists learned to look beneath the surface of the soil, and into its 
adjacent waters for Nature's abundant stores which awaited the touch of 
the industrious, but intelligent hand to bring them within reach.

A reference to the commodities shipped in the early years from Virginia, 
would indicate that the colonists had not learned to till the soil to 
advantage, as there was not one agricultural product amongst these early 
shipments. They were the products of the forest and the water.

The first cargo shipped by the colony was glittering dirt sulphuret of 
antimony-taken by Newport on his return from the second trip to Virginia. 
Soon after Newport's departure, the Phoenix-the vessel of Nelson who 
accompanied Newport from England, but was blown back to the West Indies-
arrived with some of the provisions which he had saved. The colonists 
desired him to also load gold dirt for a return cargo, but Smith succeeded 
in loading the vessel with cedar instead. This was the first valuable 
cargo sent from Virginia to England.

On June 22, 1610, the Council in Virginia wrote the Council in London 
regarding the shipment of sassafras roots by the sailors of the returning 
ship: "Our easiest and richest commodity being sassafras rootes were 
gathered upp by the sailors with losse and spoile of our tools and 
withdrawing of our men from our labour, to their uses againste our 
knowledge to our prejudice, we earnestlie entreat you (and doe trusts) 
that you take order as we be not thus defrauded, since they be all waged 
men, yet doe wee wishe that they be reasonablie dealt withall so as all 
losse, neither fall on us nor then. I believe they have thereof two townes 
(tons?) at the leaste wich if they scatter abroad at their pleasure will 
pull down our price for a long time, this we leave to your wisdomes."

The colonists were instructed how to prepare things for shipment to England

"Small sassafras rootes to be drawn in the winter and dryed and none to be 
meddled with in the summer, and it is worth £ 50 and better per Towne."

"Baye beries are to be gathered when they turn blacke Worth per Towne £ 
12."

"Poccone to be gotten from the Indians, worth per Towne £ 100.

"Galbrand groweth like fennell in fashion. You must cat it in May or June, 
[and?] to be cut in small pieces and pressed in your small presses which 
were sent over for oyle, the juice thereof is to be saved and put in 
casks, which will be wurths here per Towne £ 100 at leaste."

"Sarsaparila is a root that runneth within the ground like unto Licoras. 
The roote is to be pulled up and dryed and bound up in bundles like 
Faggott. It is wurthe per Towne £ 200."

"Walnut oyle is worth here £ 30 per Towne and the like is chestnut oyle 
and checkinkamyne oil" (chinquopin).

"Wyne a hogshead or two sower as it should be sent for a sample, and some 
of the grapes packed in sande."

"Silk grasse, should be sent in quantity."

"Bever Codd is likewise to be cutt and dryed and will yeald here 5s per 
lb"-supposed to be yellow pond lily.

"Beaver skynnes being taken in winter tyme will yeald great profit, the 
like with Otter skynnes."

"Oak and walnutt tree is best to be cut in the winter, the oak to be 
cleavers into clapborde, but the walnutt tree to be let lye"--in logs.

"Pyne trees, or funs trees are to be wounded within a yarde of the 
grounde, or boars a hole with an Agar the thirde pane into the tree, and 
let it run into anything that may receive the same and that which issues 
out will be Turpentine worthe £ 18 per Towne."

"Pitche and Tarre bath been made there. And we doubt not veil be agayne, 
and some sent for a sample, your owne turnes being first served."

"Sturgion which was last sent, came ill conditioned, not being well 
boyled, if it were cut in small pieces, and powdred put up in caske, the 
heads pickled by themselves and sent hither it would do farr better."

"Rowes of the said Sturgeon make Cavearie according to instructions 
formerly given."

"Sounds of the said Sturgion will make Isinglass worth here £ 6, 13s, 4d 
per 100 pounds."

"Cavearie well conditioned £ 40 per 100 pounds."

These instructions veers sent by the Company to Virginia in 1610. Consider 
the changes in 300 years. According to railroad statisticians, the grain 
crop of the United States for the year 1905, will aggregate 1,500,000 car 
loads. Dividing this into trains of forty cars each, there would be 
required 37,500 locomotives, which together with the cars would extend end 
to end a total distance of 12,286 miles. These figures are estimates only 
of the grain which will be moved to market centers on steam roads. It is 
stated that probably not morn than one third of the grain, consisting of 
corn, oats, wheat, barley and rye produced in that year will ever enter a 
freight car. The other two thirds will be hauled to local mills in wagons, 
or be consumed by live stock on the farms. To haul the corn crop alone 
would require a train of 21,000 miles in length.